1 For this reason I, Paul, the prisoner of Christ Jesus for the sake of you Gentiles--
2 Surely you have heard about the administration of God's grace that was given to me for you, 3 that is, the mystery made known to me by revelation, as I have already written briefly. 4 In reading this, then, you will be able to understand my insight into the mystery of Christ, 5 which was not made known to men in other generations as it has now been revealed by the Spirit to God's holy apostles and prophets. 6 This mystery is that through the gospel the Gentiles are heirs together with Israel, members together of one body, and sharers together in the promise in Christ Jesus.
7 I became a servant of this gospel by the gift of God's grace given me through the working of his power. 8 Although I am less than the least of all God's people, this grace was given me: to preach to the Gentiles the unsearchable riches of Christ, 9 and to make plain to everyone the administration of this mystery, which for ages past was kept hidden in God, who created all things. 10 His intent was that now, through the church, the manifold wisdom of God should be made known to the rulers and authorities in the heavenly realms, 11 according to his eternal purpose which he accomplished in Christ Jesus our Lord. 12 In him and through faith in him we may approach God with freedom and confidence. 13 I ask you, therefore, not to be discouraged because of my sufferings for you, which are your glory.
Incalculable Riches by Bishop Roy C. Nichols
Ephesians 3:1-13
Sermon
by Leonard Mann
In Ephesians, Chapter 3 and verse 8, Paul says, "To me, least of all the saints, is given the grace to preach the unsearchable riches of the gospel of Jesus Christ." One of our modern translations renders the text thus: "the incalculable riches." I like that better, because it expresses the vastness of the gospel, rather than its "mystery." Paul was sharing this testimony with the members of the churches of the city of Ephesus. They knew him well; for he had first preached in their midst and nurtured them from infancy.
If you remember your geography you know that Ephesus is located on the shore of Asia Minor adjoining the Aegean Sea; and, as the crow flies, midway between Jerusalem and Rome. That in itself is symbolic. Paul is sharing with these Christians his great joy that he has been privileged to preach to them and to all of the Gentiles concerning the incalculable riches of the whole gospel of Jesus Christ. Before the first century had ended, Ephesus had become one of the citadels of Christianity.
Almost two thousand years later, in the summer of 1974 in Luzanne, Switzerland, a group of evangelical Christians assembled to consider the future of Christianity. They had some serious concerns. The past one hundred eighty years might well be considered the golden age of Christian faith; for in that period we added to the church more persons than were gathered into the fold of Christ in the prior eighteen hundred years combined!
These years, as you will remember, were the years of the Industrial Revolution, of tremendous colonial expansion, and of the political dominance of the nominally Christian Western nations. They moved across the face of the earth, spreading their cultural influence and sending their missionaries. This was the period of the great revivals which stimulated the life of the church. There was excitement and growth everywhere. The concept of "manifest destiny," which reinforced the feeling that God had somehow ordained the domination of Western nations in order to propagate the "Word" and "civilize" the world.
But the concern of the Christians in Luzanne centered around a changing picture, not only in the area of Christian growth, but Christian influence. Approximately twenty years ago they were saying that Christians were about thirty-three percent of the world community; now they are saying we are approximately thirty percent. But as the population of the world increases geometrically and the church grows arithmetically, by the year 2000, at present growth rates, we will be reduced to approximately sixteen percent!
It isn’t that the church has stopped growing; it is growing. But the rate of the increase of the people on this planet is such that we simply are not keeping pace. And it is not simply a question of numerical statistics that concerns us, but "Christian influence" in the world as well. So the Christians at Luzanne formulated what they called a "Covenant Statement." And in that Covenant they had a phrase which I think will outlive the memory of their meeting. They said it is the task of the whole church to proclaim the whole gospel to the whole world.
Most of us have come to understand the wholeness of the world. Anybody’s joy or sorrow in any part of the world affects and influences everybody’s joy and sorrow everywhere in the world. Any human being in the United States who does not understand that statement needs his television examined!
We have come to understand more about the "wholeness" of the church. No longer can we say of any friend of Jesus, "I have no need of thee." But the church is still confused and quarreling over the "wholeness" of the incalculable richness of the full gospel of Jesus Christ.
Disputations still prevail between and among those who are characterized as "conservatives" or "fundamentalists" or "charismatics" or "liberals" or something else. So we need to look at the completeness of the Word of God in order to proclaim the totality of the gospel in its fullness.
One of my preachers attended a conference down in the state of Florida not long ago, and he came back with an interesting story told by Bishop Fulton J. Sheen. The good Bishop said he went to a restaurant one morning to have breakfast. He was suddenly confronted by an exceedingly courteous but coldly perfunctory waitress. She placed the menu in front of him and stood stiffly awaiting his order. "I’ll take bacon and eggs and toast and coffee." She mechanically took the menu. Then the bishop added: "and a few kind words." She disappeared, and shortly she returned with all the goodies. She placed each item on the table with great ease. Then, standing quite stiffly, she enjoined "Sir, will there be anything else?" With a smile on his face, the Bishop asked, "What about the few kind words?" At this point she bowed her head close to his ear and said, "If I were you, I wouldn’t eat them eggs!"
Well, using St. Paul as the point of beginning, I want to speak in the affirmative "a few kind words" concerning the incalculable richness of the whole gospel of Jesus Christ, using as a background the flavoring of the Epistle of Paul to the Ephesians.
Internal Dimension
The first consideration is the internal dimension of the gospel. Ephesians 2:8 and 9 read, "By grace you are saved through faith." It is the gift of God, not of works, lest any man should boast. Grace is the action aspect of the love of God which proceeds toward us. It is the most exciting ingredient in the gospel. God is the aggressor. When we speak of grace, we are talking about God’s loving pursuit. It is the embodiment of the fullness of the meaning of the love of God, expressed in the Cross and the Resurrection. We take seriously the prophetic utterance of Isaiah when he said, "He was wounded for our transgressions and bruised for our iniquities; the chastisem*nt of our peace was upon him; and by his stripes we are healed."
And Paul himself says in Romans 4:25, "He was raised again for our justification." If you believe in the efficacy of the Crucifixion, then you must believe in the necessity of the Resurrection. For God was in Christ, reconciling the world unto himself; and if this be not true, then the Church of Jesus Christ cannot be the Church, and the Christian has no reason for enthusiasm. Our response to God’s grace is the motivator of Christian faith and works.
The church always comes to life when the people of God begin to rejoice again; not alone in the fact of our hope in Christ, but in the personal experience of the meaning of God’s redemptive and saving grace. It prompts a joyful response in the individual Christian who names the name of Jesus.
Moral and Ethical Dimension
Secondly, there is the moral and ethical dimension to the gospel. Paul mentions it in Ephesians 4, verse 1. He says, "I, therefore, a prisoner of Jesus Christ, beseech you to walk worthy of the vocation wherewith ye have been called."
Grace, in its redeeming work empowers the believer to order his life after the model of Christ. Beginning in chapter 5, verse 23, Paul begins to enumerate in specific ways the nature of the ethical and moral responsibility of the individual Christian. He talks about our personal morality. He talks about the relationship which ought to prevail between husbands and wives; he talks about the relationship which ought to prevail between parents and children; he talks about the relationship which ought to prevail between employer and employee. I suppose if one would try to find characteristic phrasings to depict Paul’s basic intention here, it would be his commitment to discipline and to duty and to devotion. And that devotion is expressed in love, the charisma of God. Our new permissive Christianity tries to evade the harness of discipline and of duty and of devotion.
Paul disturbs us because he speaks so frequently of obedience; and obedience seems to be contrary to our meaning of freedom. The women’s liberation movement chafes greatly over some of Paul’s hard sayings regarding the place of women in the life of the church. Indeed, in 1 Corinthians 14:34 he does say that the women ought to keep silent in the church. Now those of you who believe the Bible from cover to cover will find this a hard word to swallow.
I received a letter some time ago from one of my parishioners. He was a partial Bible reader who did not comprehend the fullness of the gospel. He was upbraiding the United Methodist Church for the utilization of women preachers. He said it was unscriptural, and he quoted chapter and verse. But in all fairness to the Great Apostle, one needs to understand the context out of which he spoke when with some haste and heat he chided those Corinthians. The record will show they needed strong words. But when St. Paul was speaking ex cathedra, in Galatians 3:28, he said, "There is neither Jew nor Greek, bond nor free, male nor female; for we are all one in Christ Jesus." So, ladies, if they pull 1 Corinthians 14:34 on you, you get Galatians 3:28 so that male chauvinists will see the whole gospel of Jesus Christ!
We are living in a culture which has escalated permissiveness. Sometimes we think this new style is a sign of progress when it really could be an indication of decadence, spoilage, and decay. For no civilization has lasted long without discipline, a sense of duty and devotion. We do not begin by asking the world for our agenda in the realm of ethics and morality; we begin with the agenda, the ethical and moral models given by Jesus together with ancient guidelines of the Mosaic law.
Ecumenical Dimension
A third dimension of the wholeness of the gospel is what I shall call the ecumenical dimension. In Ephesians 4:5, Paul said, "There is one Lord and one faith and one baptism, one God and Father of us all, who is above all and through all and in all." Where did we ever get the authority to absolutize our divisons?
Jesus, you remember, when speaking to the woman at the well of Sychar, attempted to break down the parochialism of the ancient Jewish conception of the Deity. He was also trying to deracialize the concept of God which prevailed in those days. You remember when the woman said that the Jews claimed that God could only be worshiped in Jerusalem. But Jesus said, "The hour is coming and now is when the true worshipper shall worship the Father in Spirit and in Truth." God is a Spirit. And they that worship him must worship him in Spirit and in Truth.
Maybe the time has come when we must look at the total implications of the theology of Jesus. It will lead us likewise to desexualize our concept of the Deity, so that the largeness of the spiritual portent of God dawns upon the church, and some of the naiveness which characterized our conception in time past can be broadened. We need to begin to talk of God’s love not only in terms of the loving Father, but as a loving father or a loving mother to a child. So is God’s love toward us. A little seven-year-old girl who had been playing with a little boy who had been berating her all day long knelt down wearily to say her prayers one night. She cupped her little hands and looked up toward Heaven: "Dear God," she said, "are little boys really better than little girls?" Then she added: "I know you are one, but please be fair!"
God is a Spirit. And they that worship God must worship God in Spirit and in Truth. Some of you may have read Charles Merrill Smith’s interesting book titled How to Pray to God When You Are Not Feeling Religious. I follow him pretty carefully, because he’s the same one who wrote the book, How to Become a Bishop Without Being Religious. In one of the sections in his book he makes an effort to desocialize our concept of God. It’s great to sense the immanence of God; but it’s important as well to understand the transcendence of God. To paraphrase Smith, in one place, he asks to keep on being the big God "I don’t want you to be my buddy," he says. The time has come in the history of the faith when we need to take giant steps upward and see the fullness of the transcendent God, whose embrace is beyond the reach even of human imagination, outstripping the boundaries of race or sex or any other anthropomorphic interpretation we may have imposed upon God’s limitless greatness.
Militant Dimension
Then there is a fourth dimension which I would characterize as the militant dimension of Christian faith. Paul speaks of it in Ephesians 6:11-12. He says, "Put on the whole armor of God, that ye may be able to stand against the wiles of the devil; for we wrestle not against flesh and blood but against principalities and against powers, against the rulers of the darkness of this world." Then Paul gives us a competitive concept of Christianity. Put on the helmet of salvation; have your loins girded with the gospel of truth; the shield of faith; the breastplate of righteousness; and in your hand, the sword of the Spirit, which is the word of God. And then, as an addenda, Paul adds, "And watch and pray with perseverence, for we wrestle not against flesh and blood."
Most of us can remember a verse from our Sunday School years, "Be ye not overcome by evil, but overcome evil with good." The Christian is not to be a "sitting duck" in the midst of evil. We are the aggressors, protesting and warning against it in all of its forms and manifestations wherever we find them, in our community, our society, our nation, and our world.
Martin Luther King, shot down on April 4, 1968, once made a point. He said if a Christian lives in the midst of evil and fails to protest against it, he (the Christian) becomes an accomplice and is worthy of the same condemnation and of the same judgment. We have no option. Christian faith in its fullness has a dimension of militancy without which it is not alive, or completely expressive of the whole gospel of Jesus Christ.
I do not need to rehearse the life of Jesus for you to recall the reasons for his crucifixion. There were two counts lodged against him: one was blasphemy. That was in the Jewish community, because they could make it stick. Before Pilate, he was accused of subversion. But his real offense was that he dared to confront the established patterns of evil which were prevalent in his times. The common people heard him gladly, but the Pharisees despised him. They conspired and ultimately they did him in. Jesus was militant, pointing his finger in the face of the Pharisees and calling them a generation of snakes. He accused them of blocking the way to the kingdom, not entering themselves and blocking the entry of others.
It is the full expression of the whole gospel that makes it rich. And when the church, in all of these diverse expressions, employs this fullness, the young and old, the vigorous and the inspired, come to the House of Prayer for empowerment to live out that "Abundant Life."
Biblical Christianity
After a sermon in which the preacher had been working on the variety and the diversity of the dimensions of the gospel, a brother who thought he knew the Scripture from front to back wasn’t sure any longer whether he believed in the whole Bible; but he had been boasting that he did. When the sermon was over, he went up to the preacher and said to him, "Now do you really believe that everything in the Bible is so, just like it says?" The preacher said, "Yes, I do." The man said, "What about that story concerning Jonah? Do you really believe that the whale swallowed Jonah, and then the whale belched him up, and then Jonah got out and walked around and was all right?" The preacher said, "Yes, I do; I believe it because it is in the Bible." Then the minister added: "When I get to heaven, I’ll see Jonah; and I’ll ask him all about the details; and then I’ll know just exactly how it happened." Whereupon his questioner said, "Well, suppose Jonah doesn’t get to heaven?" And the preacher said, "Well, then, you can ask him!"
The Council of Bishops recently published a little booklet titled "Storms and Starlight." Bishop Hunt of the Charlotte Area wrote an introduction in which he included a conversation between a country preacher and one of his parishioners. The parishioner was asking the preacher, "What is the meaning of progress?" And the preacher answered, "Well, sometimes progress is backwards." The man responded, "Well, how come?" And the preacher said, "If a man had lost his way and then finds again the path that leads back home, then progress is backwards."
Indeed, for the contemporary church progress may be backward, to a point where we begin to study the Bible again and accept the fullness of its content; to see Jesus Christ, not as just an image of theologians but as Matthew and Mark and Luke and John portrayed him, walking and living in the midst of people, grappling with evil, showing compassion to those who were disdained, hanging upon a cross (a real one, where there was sacrifice and suffering), and then being delivered by God’s power in the Resurrection. God gave us Jesus so that we could see the walking, talking, living evidence of the fullness of the whole gospel of love which he came to preach.
Going on to Glory
We have a retired preacher in our Conference by the name of Guy Smeltzer. Guy is living out in Colorado. I was with him a few weeks ago. He is seventy-five years of age. Right now he’s writing our Conference history, combining the contribution of the former EUB and the former Methodist Churches in Western Pennsylvania. Last Christmas he sent out a letter. Near the end of his closing paragraph, he said, and I quote him: "Last summer (he is speaking of the summer of ‘74), my wife and I celebrated our fifty-second Wedding Anniversary. But we are not growing old, we are just going on to Glory." Now, if you know Guy, you will know he wasn’t simply talking about the hope of heaven, (although that expectation should be a lively one among the community of the saints.) What he was saying was that each day he lived he was finding in the gospel more excitement, more reason to be alive, to express himself, to be a Christian.
Some people are taking a jaundiced view of the church of Christ in the 20th century. They are saying that we’re a worn-out crowd with a tired look. We no longer have the zip and vigor characteristic of the Ephesian Christians in the First Century or the revived church of the 19th century. And when they look at the nature of our competition, our failing membership statistics, the emergent popularity of non-Christian life styles, the growing strength of non-theistic ideologies, they predict the demise of the faith once delivered to the saints.
But we must not accept these doomsday predictions. The pressing need for the gospel as the "salt," the "leaven," and the "light" is more urgent than ever. Sin, expressed in the prideful, selfish choices of human beings, is real. Salvation, which begins with the spiritual liberation of the inner man and expends its graceful strength in the liberation of the whole community of humankind, is more necessary now than at any prior point in the history of civilization!
Let’s go on, with added zeal, exemplifying the limitless redemptive power of the "incalculable riches" of the whole gospel of Jesus Christ.
CSS Publishing Co., Inc., Meaning Of These Things, The, by Leonard Mann
Paul begins to pray for these believers (3:1), but he interrupts his own prayer to explain more about God’s plan (the “mystery”) and his own role in that plan. Not until the coming of Jesus the Messiah and the Holy Spirit at Pentecost would Jews and gentiles be u…
The Baker Bible Handbook by , Baker Publishing Group, 2016
1 For this reason I, Paul, the prisoner of Christ Jesus for the sake of you Gentiles--
2 Surely you have heard about the administration of God's grace that was given to me for you, 3 that is, the mystery made known to me by revelation, as I have already written briefly. 4 In reading this, then, you will be able to understand my insight into the mystery of Christ, 5 which was not made known to men in other generations as it has now been revealed by the Spirit to God's holy apostles and prophets. 6 This mystery is that through the gospel the Gentiles are heirs together with Israel, members together of one body, and sharers together in the promise in Christ Jesus.
7 I became a servant of this gospel by the gift of God's grace given me through the working of his power. 8 Although I am less than the least of all God's people, this grace was given me: to preach to the Gentiles the unsearchable riches of Christ, 9 and to make plain to everyone the administration of this mystery, which for ages past was kept hidden in God, who created all things. 10 His intent was that now, through the church, the manifold wisdom of God should be made known to the rulers and authorities in the heavenly realms, 11 according to his eternal purpose which he accomplished in Christ Jesus our Lord. 12 In him and through faith in him we may approach God with freedom and confidence. 13 I ask you, therefore, not to be discouraged because of my sufferings for you, which are your glory.
Paul now takes up the third spiritual blessing, that of the Spirit’s influence on the church. Through Christ, God has renewed the human family “in the heavenly realms” (see Eph. 1:3) by eliminating all cause of division. This brings Paul to pray that the Spirit will bring about this new unity in the church’s life here and now (see Eph. 3:14–19). But first, having mentioned the Gentile mission, for which he suffers imprisonment, he stops midsentence to explain that mission more fully. God has seen fit to entrust Paul with a message for the readers, the mystery of what God has done for them in Jesus Christ (3:2). Reviewing what Paul already mentioned (3:3; also Eph. 1:9–10?) will convince the readers of Paul’s grasp of this long-hidden plan, now made known by the Spirit to (and through) God’s chosen instruments, the apostles and prophets (3:4–5; see Eph. 2:20).
From the viewpoint of the mission to the Gentile world, the essence of the mystery is this: by virtue of Jesus Christ, non-Jews have a place among God’s people alongside Jews, partaking in every way in the inheritance, the unity, and the covenant promises (3:6; see Eph. 2:5–6 for three similar “together-with” descriptors). Astonishingly from the Jewish perspective, there is no mention of needing a proper relationship to the law for such participation. It is solely a matter of being “in Christ.” Neither moral effort nor ethnicity is any longer part of the prerequisites, if either ever was.
By the grace and power of God, in spite of his own sins, Paul became a servant of this gospel, this royal proclamation announcing Jesus as king of all creation (3:7). The honor came to him who in his own mind was the least (deserving?) of all God’s people—probably a reference to his former persecution of the very body to which he now belongs (3:8; of course, with grace, what one deserves is irrelevant!). It is now his privilege to announce to the Gentiles the news of the inexhaustible wealth in Christ the king and to make everyone possible aware that this mystery, hitherto concealed in the heart of God, is now available for all to know (3:9). Paul emphasizes the universality of the good news by highlighting God’s having “created all things”; it is not just about humanity.
God’s purpose in revealing the mystery is that, through the unlikely instrument of rebellious humanity now transformed into his own people in the form of the church, he might make known his multifaceted wisdom to the entire universe (3:10). This age-old, unanticipated plan he carried out in the person and work of Christ, Lord of the universe (3:11), in whom we have full confidence, by faith, to come freely and boldly into the presence of God (3:12). In view of all this, Paul begs them not to be disheartened about his incarceration and other afflictions. As a servant of the gospel (3:7), he obeys its purposes whatever the cost. Moreover, it is for their benefit that he suffers; it leads to their glory (3:13) no less than, consequently, to God’s (3:21). Imprisonment is a small price to pay for such a prize.
The Baker Illustrated Bible Commentary by Gary M. Burge, Baker Publishing Group, 2016
Paul and the Mission to the Gentiles
When the apostle completed his section on the spiritual blessings in Christ (1:3–14), he proceeded to offer a prayer of thanksgiving and petition (1:15–23). After this theological discussion in 2:1–22, it appears that he is once again ready to turn to prayer because the statement, “For this reason” (3:1), refers to what he has just said; furthermore, the actual prayer in 3:14ff. appears to relate to this section and would be a fitting climax to the thoughts that he has developed. But instead of a prayer, the apostle’s thought is diverted to another topic of discussion—one that is related to Paul’s call and mission as a proclaimer of God’s secret. After a rather lengthy presentation of this subject (3:2–13), he returns to his initial intention to pray and subsequently offers one of the most beautiful and comprehensive prayers in the NT.
At first glance, Ephesians 3:2–13 appears to be a rather lengthy parenthesis vindicating Paul’s apostleship to the Gentiles. The author has been discussing the unity of Jews and Gentiles in Christ and how the Gentiles are legitimate heirs of God’s salvation (2:11–22); but for some reason he finds it necessary to define more precisely God’s secret and the human agent through whom it was revealed. His definition of the secret (3:6) also extends previous imagery. In 2:19–22 the Gentiles were considered fellow citizens who are joined and built together into a sacred temple. The theme of unity is reemphasized in 3:6 by a number of similar expressions: “Through the gospel the Gentiles are heirs together with Israel, members together of one body, and sharers together in the promise in Christ Jesus.”
There are many close similarities between Ephesians 3:1–13 and Colossians 1:23–2:2:
Ephesians / Colossians
3:1—I, Paul, the prisoner of Christ Jesus / 1:23—I, Paul, have become a servant
3:2—God’s grace that was given to me for you / 1:25—the commission God gave me to present to you the word of God
3:3—the mystery made known to me by revelation / 1:27—God has chosen to make known among the Gentiles … this mystery
3:4—you will be able to understand my insight into the mystery of Christ / 2:2—in order that they may know the mystery of God, namely, Christ
3:6—through the gospel the Gentiles are heirs together with Israel, members together of one body, and sharers together in the promise in Christ Jesus / 1:27—this mystery, which is Christ in you, the hope of glory
3:8—Although I am … least … this grace was given to me: to preach to the Gentiles the unsearchable riches of Christ / 1:27—God has chosen to make known among the Gentiles the glorious riches of this mystery
3:9—to make plain to everyone the administration of this mystery / 1:26—the mystery … but … now disclosed to the saints
3:10—through the church the manifold wisdom of God should be made known / 1:26—the mystery … hidden for ages and generations, but … now disclosed
3:13—[do not] be discouraged because of my sufferings for you / 1:24—I rejoice in what was suffered for you
In both epistles, the author is in prison and is suffering; he is considered the minister to the Gentiles; the “mystery” has been hidden but is now revealed; this secret is identified as the inclusion of the Gentiles in God’s plan of salvation; it is the message that Paul has been commissioned to preach.
There are, however, some notable differences between these two epistles as well. In Colossians, the call of Paul as a missionary to the Gentiles (1:25, 26) is not as specific as in Ephesians (3:8), where he definitely is identified as a prisoner of Christ Jesus for the sake of the Gentiles, to whom his preaching is directed (cf. Acts 21:17–34; 22:21–24; 26:12–23).
The goal of Paul’s preaching varies slightly also: In Colossians, the proclamation is given “so that we may present everyone perfect in Christ” (1:28); in Ephesians, it is oriented specifically toward the revelation of the “mystery” (“to make plain to everyone the administration of this mystery”). Ephesians does not touch upon the aspect of Christian maturity until 4:13.
But the main difference centers upon the nature of this “mystery” that Paul has been called to preach. The brief mention of this in Colossians 1:27 almost goes unnoticed and hardly gives any indication of what the secret is all about. Ephesians, however, definitely is concerned about defining the “mystery” (3:6) and presenting Paul as its chief exponent.
In 3:14–19, the author begins his prayer for spiritual growth and unity. The specific requests include strengthening of the readers’ inner selves by God’s Spirit (3:16), the indwelling of Christ in their hearts through faith (3:17a), a strong grounding in love (3:17b), comprehending the love of Christ (3:18–19a), and being filled with the perfect fullness of God (3:19b). In some ways, these requests are not unlike his earlier mention of wisdom (1:17), knowledge (1:17), and enlightenment for the readers (1:18).
There is no specific reference to the problem of the unity of the church. Mention of the Fatherhood of God (3:14) and the comprehension of Christ’s love by all God’s people (3:18) does, nevertheless, remind the readers that their unity in Christ is to result in a unified Christian fellowship. The writer uses the expression “the saints” (hoi hagioi) on a number of occasions in the sense of belonging or togetherness (1:1, 15, 18; 2:19; 3:18; 6:18).
The concluding benediction (3:20, 21) points out that God is able to do far more than is requested, because the power of Christ is at work within the believer. The mention of the church is significant, for it is the sphere of the outworking of God’s purpose on earth as well as in heaven (3:10). In stating this, Ephesians extends the mission of the church beyond that taught in Colossians.
The new features of this chapter center around the clarification of God’s “mystery,” the prominence of Paul as an exponent of that secret, and the cosmic mission of the church. Beyond that, there is a definite repetition of the ideas used earlier in the epistle, for example:
the mystery as made known by revelation (3:3 = 1:9)
the role of apostles and prophets (3:5 = 2:20)
the inheritance of the saints (3:6 = 1:14)
the grace and power of God (3:7, 20 = 1:19)
God’s eternal plan (3:9 = 1:10; 2:7)
the cosmic scope (3:10 = 1:3, 10)
God’s eternal purpose (3:11 = 1:4)
access to God (3:12 = 2:12)
God the Father (3:14, 15 = 1:17)
the Son (3:11, 17 = 1:3, etc.)
the Spirit (3:5, 16 = 1:13, 14; 2:22)
the fullness of God (3:19 = 1:23)
Presenting the Mystery of the Gospel
3:1 As indicated in the introduction, the phrase for this reason points back to the theological ideas that have been developed in the preceding section and that lead the apostle to prayer. I, Paul, is an emphatic expression designed to draw attention to the apostle and what he has to say (cf. 2 Cor. 10:1; Gal. 5:2; Col. 1:23; 1 Thess. 2:18). What is emphasized is that Paul is the prisoner of Christ Jesus for the sake of the Gentiles. The NIV rightly translates the article before prisoner as the rather than “a” prisoner (RSV). Thus Paul is represented, not as one prisoner among many, but as the prisoner of Christ Jesus, because of the significance of his ministry to the Gentiles (Acts 21:17–34; 22:21–24; 26:12–23). Gentiles is an inclusive term and, as in 2:11, refers not to any one specific congregation but to all Gentiles (Gentiles also is preceded by an article and should read you the Gentiles). Other references to Paul’s imprisonment are found in 6:20, Philippians 1:7, Colossians 4:10, and Philemon 1 and 9.
3:2 The NIV (and GNB) surely you have heard is a better translation than the RSV “assuming that you have heard,” which implies some kind of doubt rather than verification (cf. 4:21; Col. 1:23). The phrase does raise a question about the Ephesian destination of the epistle, but fits the “circular letter theory,” which would include a number of Gentile congregations.
In the process of developing Paul’s role as the missionary to the Gentiles, the author mentions several important things: First, God gave Paul a commission (the administration [oikonomia] of God’s grace that was given to me for you); second, God gave him grace. Though Paul does connect God’s grace with his mission (3:7, 8; 4:7; Rom. 1:5; 12:3; 15:15–16), it is God’s grace and not the work that is given in this context. This is slightly different from Colossians 1:25, where it is the office (oikonomia) that was given (cf. Mitton, pp. 125, 126).
3:3–4 In the next ten verses the author concentrates upon the mystery and how God used Paul to reveal that plan to the Gentiles. He begins by referring to the mystery made known to me by revelation. This follows the connection between revelation and the mystery that was alluded to in 1:9 and 10, but affirms that this revelation is from God and not something that Paul concluded from his studies or received from tradition (cf. Gal. 1:12, 16; 2:2).
Before the meaning of this mystery is developed, the author reminds his readers that he already has written briefly about this. Though a few commentators see an allusion in this phrase to an earlier epistle(s) to a Gentile audience, most take it as a reference to the brief mention of the “mystery” in 1:9–10 and to the outworking of it through the Jews and the Gentiles in 2:11ff. With that as background material, they can go on and understand the apostle’s insight into the mystery of Christ. The author is confident that as they read—probably in a public worship service and then in private meditation—they will be able to appreciate the significance of Paul as a servant of Christ with respect to the mystery. It is unlikely that it refers to a reading of the OT (see Foulkes, P. 92).
Concerning the use of mystery, a number of items should be noted: In Colossians (1:27) the mystery is the rather mystical concept of the indwelling Christ (“Christ in you, the hope of glory”); in Colossians 4:3, the “mystery of Christ” alludes to the fact that the Gentiles are recipients of the gospel (cf. Rom. 16:25, 26); in Ephesians 1:9, the mystery is God’s plan to unite all creation through the agency of Christ; in Ephesians 3:4, along with 3:6, the mystery is the unity between Jew and Gentile. This has partially been explained in 1:9–10 and 2:11–22, but now is made more explicit. Ephesians takes the concept of “the mystery” from a revelation of a gospel that included the Gentiles (Colossians) and develops it into a doctrine on the unity between Jew and Gentile in the church (3:6).
3:5 This verse closely resembles Colossians 1:26, which talks about the mystery that was hidden through all past ages from all humankind but that God has now revealed to his people. There are, however, notable differences: First, there is the nature of the mystery itself. In Colossians, it is the message of the gospel to the Gentiles; in Ephesians, it is the unity between Jews and Gentiles. Second, the revelation is by the Spirit to God’s holy apostles and prophets rather than to “all people.” This change is significant in Ephesians because it confirms the emphasis given in the epistle to church leaders and ecclesiastical authorities rather than to all the people. Initially (3:3) the author stated that Paul alone was the recipient of this revelation; now he broadens it to include other inspired leaders in the church (2:20; 4:11).
The opening phrase in this verse ([the mystery] was not made known to men in other generations) raises a question about how much of God’s plan for the Gentiles was revealed before Paul came along. There are some glimpses of this in the OT where references to all the nations who come to the “light” or join the Lord surely includes the Gentiles (Gen. 12:1–3; Isa. 11:10; 42:6; 60:3; Jer. 16:19; Mic. 4:2; Zeph. 2:11). Paul himself uses Isaiah 49:6 to justify his call to the Gentiles when he disputes with the Jews (Acts 13:47). And in Romans 15:9–12, he enlists a series of OT passages to demonstrate that the Gentiles always had a future in God’s plan.
Thus, in a broad sense, one could say that God’s purpose for the Gentiles was made known. But this is far short of the development in Ephesians, which envisions a universal community in which Jew and Gentile have equal share in what is to become known as the church, the body of Christ (cf. Stott, p. 118). The new revelation was made possible by the Spirit, that is, he is the agent who brought the mystery to light.
3:6 Up to this point the author has alluded to the mystery a number of times: now, however, he becomes specific and defines it in a way that will remove any doubt about its content. This mystery is that through the gospel, that is, by way of the proclamation of the word of truth that was believed and accepted (1:13), the Gentiles have been given a completely new status with all of the privileges pertaining thereto. The author describes this with a number of picturesque words prefixed with the preposition syn.
First, the Gentiles are heirs together with Israel. The Greek word synklēronoma is the same one Paul uses on occasions when he talks about believers becoming “heirs” of salvation and of the blessings of God (Rom. 8:17; Gal. 3:29; 4:7). Here the preposition syn gives it the force of “fellow heirs,” indicating that the Gentiles share equally with the Jews all the privileges and blessings of sonship.
Second, they are members together of one body. Since there is no occurrence of this word (syssōma) anywhere in the NT, the Septuagint (the pre-Christian Greek translation of the OT), or classical literature, it becomes obvious that the author coined it in order to describe the intimate relation that Jews and Gentiles have to each other in the body of Christ, the church. Robinson notes that there is no English equivalent and, in order to capture its full meaning, offers this idea: “In relation to the Body the members are ‘incorporate’; in relation to one another they are ‘con-corporate,’ that is, sharers in the one body” (p. 78).
Third, the Gentiles are sharers together in the promise in Christ Jesus. Once again, the author uses a syn noun (symmetochos) to emphasize that the Gentiles participate equally with the Jews in the promises of God. Their entire relationship with the people of God is established by their incorporation in Christ as it came to them through the gospel. The gospel is the proclamation of all the privileges that Christ has made available to humanity, including the Gentiles. Earlier, the author indicated that God’s ultimate plan was to bring all creation together (1:10). One gets the distinct impression that the unity between Jew and Gentile is but the first step in a broader cosmic unity that is going to include all of creation under the headship of Christ (cf. Rom. 8:19–21).
3:7 Having stated the role of the gospel in bringing this unity about, the author reminds his readers once again that Paul became a servant of this gospel by the gift of God’s grace (cf. 3:2). Paul’s ministry was neither a self-chosen nor a self-appointed one but a gift of God’s grace. The ability to carry out that mission came through the working of his (God’s) power and not Paul’s strength (Col. 1:29). Everything that Paul received and achieved was the result of God’s gift of grace and power.
3:8 Readers of the Pauline epistles will recall statements similar to the one made here: I am less than the least of all God’s people. When Paul’s apostleship was being questioned by the Corinthians, he remarked that “I am not in the least inferior to the ‘super-apostles,’ even though I am nothing” (2 Cor. 12:11). And on occasions when Paul is haunted by his former persecution of the church, he reminds himself of his unworthiness and inadequacy (cf. 1 Cor. 15:9; Gal. 1:13; 1 Tim. 1:12–14). In this context, it appears that Paul’s feeling of inferiority comes from reflecting upon the grace of God and how it has worked in his life and among the Gentiles. He is overcome, not by a guilty conscience or questions about his authority, but by a heart that is overflowing with the marvels of God’s grace.
The next phrase indicates that there is a double function to Paul’s apostleship: First, there is his ministry of the proclamation of the gospel to the Gentiles (this grace was given to me: to preach to the Gentiles the unsearchable riches of Christ). Though Paul has commented on his mission to the Gentiles, he appears to be amazed—and thankful—that God’s grace was rich enough to include them and that he was God’s instrument in bringing the message of reconciliation to them. F. Beare draws attention to the article before Christ, thus indicating that “the Christ,” or “the Messiah” who was promised to the Jews, is now proclaimed to the Gentiles as well (p. 669). This could be a conscious thought in the author’s mind, given the context of a passage in which the incorporation of both Jews and Gentiles is stressed.
The translation unsearchable (anexichniastos) riches captures beautifully the idea behind this Greek word (cf. NEB, “unfathomable”). Stott lists ten different English equivalents that he has discovered in various translations and commentaries—all attempting to define the word without confining its meaning (p. 120). Basically, it means “not to be tracked out,” “beyond comprehension,” or “inscrutable.” Paul expresses this idea when he writes to the Romans: “Oh, the depth of the riches of the wisdom and knowledge of God! How unsearchable his judgments, and his paths beyond tracing out!” (11:33). The same thoughts occur in Job 5:9 and 9:10 with respect to God’s creation and providence: they lie beyond human comprehension and defy description.
A modern analogy may be found in the current attempt to conquer the cosmos. The present universe, as it is known, is accessible and “trackable.” But as one reaches farther and farther into space, one discovers that there are many more universes and galaxies to explore—literally, an infinity in space. And so it is with the riches of Christ! They are unsearchable to the extent that the moment one discovers some of them a new door is opened to God’s treasury, which in turn leads to a supply of riches that is endless and even beyond comprehension. These unsearchable riches are none other than Christ himself.
3:9 The second aspect of Paul’s mission is to make plain to everyone the administration of this mystery. Literally, the phrase reads “to enlighten” (phōtisai), or “to bring to light what is the stewardship (oikonomia) of the mystery.” The Greek word for “all people” (pantes) is omitted in some manuscripts, so the emphasis is on bringing God’s mystery plan to light. Although not stated, the intention appears to be that the revelation is to everyone (as the NIV).
The idea of “illuminating,” or making all of humanity see how God’s mystery plan is to be put into effect, suggests something more than proclamation; it conveys the idea that Paul was used specifically to show the world how God publicly disclosed what had been kept secret. Paul accomplished this by explaining the incorporation of the Jews and Gentiles into the body of Christ. Everything that has taken place is part of God’s master plan (oikonomia). The reference to God as the one who created all things is somewhat enigmatic. Does it mean that this mystery/plan of God is part of his creative activity, or does it emphasize that his mystery was hidden from the time of creation and for ages past was kept hidden in God?
The parallel in Colossians 1:26, for example, mentions the mystery hidden “for ages and generations” but without reference to God as the Creator. Beare concludes that the mention of God’s creative activity is “in keeping with the writer’s consistent association of creation and redemption, and his emphasis on the cosmic aspect of the saving work of Christ” (p. 670). It does confirm that God created all things, including that which is momentarily concealed but which, in his eternal plan, is made plain to everyone.
3:10 What had remained hidden “for ages past” (3:9) is now (nyn) made manifest. This verse makes one of the most inclusive statements about the church in the entire NT. Simply put, it announces that the church has a cosmic function in the plan of God.
With this verse, the author reaches the climax of his development on the “mystery/plan of God.” C. L. Mitton calls this “God’s master plan” and outlines the sequence by which this revelation took place: “It was made known first to Paul (3:3), then to the apostles and prophets (3:5), then to all men (3:9). Only then, as God’s reconciling power in Christ became effective in his Church and produced a united fellowship out of elements which in the world had seemed irreconcilable, did the powers of evil realize what God was achieving” (p. 127). This unfolding of God’s plan as presented in Ephesians may be diagrammed in the following way:
Paul (3:3)
Apostles and prophets (3:5)
All mankind (3:9)
Angelic powers and rulers in the heavenly world (3:10)
In this last stage God’s plan comes full circle: What was alluded to in the opening hymn of praise (1:10) is now complete. The grand purpose of the church is that through its agency, the manifold wisdom of God should be made known to the rulers and authorities in the heavenly realms. These angelic rulers and powers are those beings mentioned in 1:21 and in 6:12. Colossians used similar expressions when it taught Christ’s—and consequently the believer’s—victory over these evil forces (Col. 1:16; 2:15, 20; cf. also Rom. 8:38; 1 Pet. 3:22).
In order to understand this verse it is necessary to realize that the author is assuming an ancient cosmological system. In pre-Copernican times, astronomers believed that the earth was the center of the universe and that it had no motion. The earth was surrounded by a series of spheres that contained celestial bodies, such as the sun, moon, stars, and planets, which revolved around the earth. Beyond these spheres (usually seven) was the highest heaven, where God made his abode. In time, it was believed that these spheres were inhabited by some kind of “heavenly beings,” which acted as sovereign rulers within these spheres. These heavenly powers could be either good and friendly or evil and hostile.
With respect to salvation, some religious systems, such as that of the Gnostics, believed that the human soul had to pass through these spheres as it ascended to its permanent abode with God in the highest heaven. But as it moved upward, it was confronted by the rulers and authorities of these spheres, who, in most cases, were hostile and needed to be placated or appeased in some way so that safe passage through the spheres could be guaranteed. This developed into elaborate systems of magic, sorcery, and astrology, many of which were current during Paul’s time.
The central message in the book of Colossians is that Christ has defeated these evil powers through his death on the cross. Consequently, they no longer have any control or authority over humankind; believers share in that victory by virtue of their faith in Christ and by virtue of their union with his death and resurrection in baptism (Col. 2:20).
Ephesians retains a similar cosmology: Christ is exalted and rules “far above all rule and authority, power and dominion, and every title that can be given” (1:21); the Christian is engaged in a battle “against the rulers, against the authorities, against the powers of this dark world and against the spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly realms” (6:12); and in 3:10, these forces exist as witnesses to what God has done and is doing through the church. Thus, all forms of life—whether on earth or in the far regions of the cosmos—know about God’s eternal plan and purpose.
Scholarly interpretations vary greatly in their approach to the cosmology presented in Ephesians and Colossians. Some believe that the concepts are obsolete and need to be demythologized, that is, reinterpreted in terms that have meaning for the modern era. A good example is Barth, who understands these concepts as politicoeconomic structures of society rather than as cosmic intelligences (cf. notes on 1:21, 22). At the other extreme there is the position represented by Stott, who takes exception to the kind of interpretation given by Barth and others. Stott does not accept the view that Paul was referring to earthly social structures that are included in the redemptive activity of God. In his book God’s New Society, he provides a short history of the study of the principalities and powers (pp. 267–75) and makes a passionate appeal that readers of the NT understand them as supernatural beings rather than as “structures, institutions and traditions” (p. 273).
It is unclear what effect this revelation of God’s mystery through the church is to have upon these heavenly beings. All the text says is that through the church they might know the manifold wisdom of God. Are they objects of God’s redemptive activity, or are they merely cosmic spectators to a drama that is being worked out on earth through the church? The rest of the NT is silent on this subject, and only a few verses allude to some kind of intelligent activity among the angels (cf. 1 Cor. 4:9; 1 Pet. 1:12).
The author describes the unity of the church as the manifestation of the wisdom of God—wisdom to the extent that God’s divine purposes were being accomplished throughout all the “past ages” down to the present time. Only an all-wise God could bring hostile nations and powers together into a unified whole.
God’s wisdom, the author continues, is manifold. This is a translation of the Greek polypoikilos, which basically means “many-sided” or “varied forms” (NEB). God’s manifold wisdom is like looking through a kaleidoscope that reveals an amazing array of shapes and colors as one turns it gently; it is like beholding a marvelous tapestry that a designer has woven from a variety of different strands (Stott, p. 123). In this verse, the author has a magnificent vision of a triumphant and unified church that demonstrates the entire creative and redemptive purposes of God to all humanity (3:9) as well as to all cosmic powers (3:10).
3:11 The recent disclosure of God’s mystery was something that God had planned to do from eternity. In a way, the apostle is sharing a philosophy of history in which he sees each successive age as a further revelation of the eternal plan that God is working out for humanity. Many Christian writers have suggested that history be spelled His-story (cf. Stott, p. 127). The One who “chose us in him before the foundation of the world” (1:4, RSV) has now made that election possible in Christ Jesus our Lord.
As in the opening hymn, the author indicates that Christ is the agent through whom God accomplishes his purposes. Here he uses three specific titles for Christ: He is “the Christ,” that is, the Messiah for whom the Jews hoped; he is Jesus, the one whom the early Christians believed was historically present with them in the Incarnation; he is the Lord, who through death and resurrection has been exalted to the Father’s right hand.
When this verse states that God’s eternal purpose was accomplished in Christ Jesus our Lord, it implies that everything Christ did and said was important. The apostle is drawing attention to the entire Christ-event (incarnation-life-death-resurrection-exaltation), for in this, God accomplished his redemptive purpose for humankind. Ephesians 2:1–10 serves as a good commentary on how the apostle views the work of Christ as applied to the believer; 2:11–22 performs a similar function in showing how Jews and Gentiles are united in Christ to form his body. The church is a living testimony to the redemptive and unifying power of God on earth (3:9) as well as to all heavenly beings (3:10).
3:12 Lest the readers conclude that the God who worked out this eternal plan is somehow removed from the everyday affairs of mankind, the apostle turns to a practical concern and reminds them that their union with Christ grants them the privilege of communicating with God (in him and through faith in him we may approach God with freedom and confidence). The words in Greek are “boldness” (parrēsia), “access” (prosagōgē), and confidence (pepoithēsis). Parrēsia is used in the NT in the context of speaking, such as boldness in proclaiming the gospel (Acts 4:31; Eph. 6:20; Phil. 1:20) and confidence in approaching God (Heb. 4:16; 10:19).
Christians have that boldness in approaching God because their faith and union with Christ have given them confidence. In Christ, all barriers have been removed that would keep the believer from approaching God openly and confidently. Christ has revealed the Father as one who has forgiven his children and who loves them. B. F. Westcott aptly comments that “the right of address and the right of access are coupled together as parts of the right of personal communion with God” (p. 49).
3:13 In this verse there appears to be an abrupt shift in the author’s thought, and he returns to his previous mention of being a prisoner (3:1). By reading between the lines one could get the impression that the Gentile congregations had become discouraged (enkakeō, “become weary,” “despair,” “lose heart,” “be afraid”) because their great spokesman had been imprisoned. Undoubtedly, much prayer went up to God on Paul’s behalf (Col. 4:18). It could be that his discussion on the revelation of God’s mystery and the reminder of the believer’s freedom in approaching God led him to encourage his readers not to become discouraged over the circ*mstances surrounding his imprisonment.
Most commentators draw attention to the fact that the Greek phrase is capable of a number of translations and meanings because the verb “do not be discouraged” (mē enkakein) does not have a subject. Consequently, it could read (a) “I ask that I may not be discouraged,” or (b) “I ask that ‘you’ not be discouraged.” The context of the passage, together with Paul’s positive attitude toward his sufferings (Rom. 5:3; 2 Cor. 12:10; Col. 1:24), suggests that the author’s concern is with the members of the Gentile congregations who may have become disheartened over Paul’s imprisonment. Consequently, they are once again reminded (cf. 3:1) that Paul is suffering on their behalf; but this time the author adds that it is for your benefit, literally, “for your glory” (doxa). The immediate benefit, or glory, is that through Paul’s ministry and subsequent imprisonment, the Gentiles have become members of Christ’s body. This, in turn, should prevent them from losing heart. It is doubtful that Ephesians is teaching that the sufferings of the martyrs are the glory of the church—a concept that developed in later centuries.
Additional Notes
3:2 For an extended discussion of the “mystery,” see R. E. Brown, The Semitic Background of the Term “Mystery” in the New Testament (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1968); A. E. Harvey, “The Use of Mystery Language in the Bible,” JTS n.s. 31 (1980), pp. 320–36.
3:10 There is additional discussion of these concepts in the commentary on Col. 1:16; 2:15, 20, and Eph. 1:21–22 and 6:12. See the bibliographies listed in notes on Eph. 1:21–22 and 6:12. Cf. also Caragounis, The Ephesians Mysterion, pp. 139–42; Beare, pp. 671–72; Stott, pp. 267–75.
Understanding the Bible Commentary Series by Arthur G. Patzia, Baker Publishing Group, 2016
Direct Matches
The founder of what became known as the movement of Jesus followers or Christianity. For Christian believers, Jesus Christ embodies the personal and supernatural intervention of God in human history.
Birth and childhood. The Gospels of Matthew and Luke record Jesus’ birth in Bethlehem during the reign of Herod the Great (Matt. 2:1; Luke 2:4, 11). Jesus was probably born between 6 and 4 BC, shortly before Herod’s death (Matt. 2:19). Both Matthew and Luke record the miracle of a virginal conception made possible by the Holy Spirit (Matt. 1:18; Luke 1:35). Luke mentions a census under the Syrian governor Quirinius that was responsible for Jesus’ birth taking place in Bethlehem (2:15). Both the census and the governorship at the time of the birth of Jesus have been questioned by scholars. Unfortunately, there is not enough extrabiblical evidence to either confirm or disprove these events, so their veracity must be determined on the basis of one’s view regarding the general reliability of the Gospel tradition.
On the eighth day after his birth, Jesus was circumcised, in keeping with the Jewish law, at which time he officially was named “Jesus” (Luke 2:21). He spent his growing years in Nazareth, in the home of his parents, Joseph and Mary (2:40). Of the NT Gospels, the Gospel of Luke contains the only brief portrayal of Jesus’ growth in strength, wisdom, and favor with God and people (2:40, 52). Luke also contains the only account of Jesus as a young boy (2:41–49).
Baptism, temptation, and start of ministry. After Jesus was baptized by the prophet John the Baptist (Luke 3:21–22), God affirmed his pleasure with him by referring to him as his Son, whom he loved (Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22). Jesus’ baptism did not launch him into fame and instant ministry success; instead, Jesus was led by the Spirit into the wilderness, where he was tempted for forty days (Matt. 4:1–11; Mark 1:12–13; Luke 4:1–13). Mark stresses that the temptations immediately followed the baptism. Matthew and Luke identify three specific temptations by the devil, though their order for the last two is reversed. Both Matthew and Luke agree that Jesus was tempted to turn stones into bread, expect divine intervention after jumping off the temple portico, and receive all the world’s kingdoms for worshiping the devil. Jesus resisted all temptation, quoting Scripture in response.
Matthew and Mark record that Jesus began his ministry in Capernaum in Galilee, after the arrest of John the Baptist (Matt. 4:12–13; Mark 1:14). Luke says that Jesus started his ministry at about thirty years of age (3:23). This may be meant to indicate full maturity or perhaps correlate this age with the onset of the service of the Levites in the temple (cf. Num. 4:3). John narrates the beginning of Jesus’ ministry by focusing on the calling of the disciples and the sign performed at a wedding at Cana (1:35–2:11).
Galilean ministry. The early stages of Jesus’ ministry centered in and around Galilee. Jesus presented the good news and proclaimed that the kingdom of God was near. Matthew focuses on the fulfillment of prophecy (Matt. 4:13–17). Luke records Jesus’ first teaching in his hometown, Nazareth, as paradigmatic (Luke 4:16–30); the text that Jesus quoted, Isa. 61:1–2, set the stage for his calling to serve and revealed a trajectory of rejection and suffering.
All the Gospels record Jesus’ gathering of disciples early in his Galilean ministry (Matt. 4:18–22; Mark 1:16–20; Luke 5:1–11; John 1:35–51). The formal call and commissioning of the Twelve who would become Jesus’ closest followers is recorded in different parts of the Gospels (Matt. 10:1–4; Mark 3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16). A key event in the early ministry is the Sermon on the Mount/Plain (Matt. 5:1–7:29; Luke 6:20–49). John focuses on Jesus’ signs and miracles, in particular in the early parts of his ministry, whereas the Synoptics focus on healings and exorcisms.
During Jesus’ Galilean ministry, onlookers struggled with his identity. However, evil spirits knew him to be of supreme authority (Mark 3:11). Jesus was criticized by outsiders and by his own family (3:21). The scribes from Jerusalem identified him as a partner of Beelzebul (3:22). Amid these situations of social conflict, Jesus told parables that couched his ministry in the context of a growing kingdom of God. This kingdom would miraculously spring from humble beginnings (4:1–32).
The Synoptics present Jesus’ early Galilean ministry as successful. No challenge or ministry need superseded Jesus’ authority or ability: he calmed a storm (Mark 4:35–39), exorcized many demons (5:1–13), raised the dead (5:35–42), fed five thousand (6:30–44), and walked on water (6:48–49).
In the later part of his ministry in Galilee, Jesus often withdrew and traveled to the north and the east. The Gospel narratives are not written with a focus on chronology. However, only brief returns to Galilee appear to have taken place prior to Jesus’ journey to Jerusalem. As people followed Jesus, faith was praised and fear resolved. Jerusalem’s religious leaders traveled to Galilee, where they leveled accusations and charged Jesus’ disciples with lacking ritual purity (Mark 7:1–5). Jesus shamed the Pharisees by pointing out their dishonorable treatment of parents (7:11–13). The Pharisees challenged his legitimacy by demanding a sign (8:11). Jesus refused them signs but agreed with Peter, who confessed, “You are the Messiah” (8:29). Jesus did provide the disciples a sign: his transfiguration (9:2–8).
Jesus withdrew from Galilee to Tyre and Sidon, where a Syrophoenician woman requested healing for her daughter. Jesus replied, “I was sent only to the lost sheep of Israel” (Matt. 15:24). Galileans had long resented the Syrian provincial leadership partiality that allotted governmental funds in ways that made the Jews receive mere “crumbs.” Consequently, when the woman replied, “Even the dogs eat the crumbs that fall from their master’s table,” Jesus applauded her faith (Matt. 15:27–28). Healing a deaf-mute man in the Decapolis provided another example of Jesus’ ministry in Gentile territory (Mark 7:31–37). Peter’s confession of Jesus as the Christ took place during Jesus’ travel to Caesarea Philippi, a well-known Gentile territory. The city was the ancient center of worship of the Hellenistic god Pan.
Judean ministry. Luke records a geographic turning point in Jesus’ ministry as he resolutely set out for Jerusalem, a direction that eventually led to his death (Luke 9:51). Luke divides the journey to Jerusalem into three phases (9:51–13:21; 13:22–17:10; 17:11–19:27). The opening verses of phase one emphasize a prophetic element of the journey. Jesus viewed his ministry in Jerusalem as his mission, and the demands on discipleship intensified as Jesus approached Jerusalem (Matt. 20:17–19, 26–28; Mark 10:38–39, 43–45; Luke 14:25–35). Luke presents the second phase of the journey toward Jerusalem with a focus on conversations regarding salvation and judgment (Luke 13:22–30). In the third and final phase of the journey, the advent of the kingdom and the final judgment are the main themes (17:20–37; 19:11–27).
Social conflicts with religious leaders increased throughout Jesus’ ministry. These conflicts led to lively challenge-riposte interactions concerning the Pharisaic schools of Shammai and Hillel (Matt. 19:1–12; Mark 10:1–12). Likewise, socioeconomic feathers were ruffled as Jesus welcomed young children, who had little value in society (Matt. 19:13–15; Mark 10:13–16; Luke 18:15–17).
Passion week, death, and resurrection. Each of the Gospels records Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem with the crowds extending him a royal welcome (Matt. 21:4–9; Mark 11:7–10; Luke 19:35–38; John 12:12–15). Luke describes Jesus’ ministry in Jerusalem as a time during which Jesus taught in the temple as Israel’s Messiah (19:45–21:38).
In Jerusalem, Jesus cleansed the temple of profiteering (Mark 11:15–17). Mark describes the religious leaders as fearing Jesus because the whole crowd was amazed at his teaching, and so they “began looking for a way to kill him” (11:18). Dismayed, each segment of Jerusalem’s temple leadership inquired about Jesus’ authority (11:27–33). Jesus replied with cunning questions (12:16, 35–36), stories (12:1–12), denunciation (12:38–44), and a prediction of Jerusalem’s own destruction (13:1–31). One of Jesus’ own disciples, Judas Iscariot, provided the temple leaders the opportunity for Jesus’ arrest (14:10–11).
At the Last Supper, Jesus instituted a new Passover, defining a new covenant grounded in his sufferings (Matt. 26:17–18, 26–29; Mark 14:16–25; Luke 22:14–20). He again warned the disciples of his betrayal and arrest (Matt. 26:21–25, 31; Mark 14:27–31; Luke 22:21–23; John 13:21–30), and later he prayed for the disciples (John 17:1–26) and prayed in agony and submissiveness in the garden of Gethsemane (Matt. 26:36–42; Mark 14:32–42; Luke 22:39–42). His arrest, trial, crucifixion, death, and resurrection followed (Matt. 26:46–28:15; Mark 14:43–16:8; Luke 22:47–24:9; John 18:1–20:18). Jesus finally commissioned his disciples to continue his mission by making disciples of all the nations (Matt. 28:18–20; Acts 1:8) and ascended to heaven with the promise that he will one day return (Luke 24:50–53; Acts 1:9–11).
The nature of the church is too broad to be exhausted in the meaning of one word. To capture its significance, the NT authors utilize a rich array of metaphorical descriptions. Nevertheless, there are those metaphors that seem to dominate the biblical pictures of the church, five of which call for comment: the people of God, the kingdom of God, the eschatological temple of God, the bride of Christ, and the body of Christ.
The people of God. Essentially, the concept of the people of God can be summed up in the covenantal phrase: “I will be their God, and they will be my people” (see Exod. 6:67; 19:5; Lev. 26:9–14; Jer. 7:23; 30:22; 32:37–40; Ezek. 11:19–20; 36:22–28; Acts 15:14; 2Cor. 6:16; Heb. 8:10–12; Rev. 21:3). Thus, the people of God are those in both the OT and the NT eras who responded to God by faith and whose spiritual origin rests exclusively in God’s grace.
The kingdom of God. Many scholars have maintained that the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus inaugurated the kingdom of God, producing the overlapping of the two ages. The kingdom has already dawned but is not yet complete. The first aspect pertains to Jesus’ first coming, and the second aspect relates to his second coming. In other words, the age to come has broken into this age, and now the two exist simultaneously. This background is crucial in ascertaining the relationship between the church and the kingdom of God, because the church also exists in the tension that results from the overlapping of the two ages. Accordingly, one may define the church as the foreshadowing of the kingdom. Two ideas flow from this definition: first, the church is related to the kingdom of God; second, the church is not equal to the kingdom of God.
The church and the kingdom of God are related. Not until after the resurrection of Jesus does the NT speak with regularity about the church. However, there are early signs of the church in the teaching and ministry of Jesus, in both general and specific ways. In general, Jesus anticipated the later official formation of the church in that he gathered to himself the twelve disciples, who constituted the beginnings of eschatological Israel—in effect, the remnant. More specifically, Jesus explicitly referred to the church in two passages: Matt. 16:18–19; 18:17. In the first passage Jesus promised that he would build his church despite satanic opposition, thus assuring the ultimate success of his mission. The notion of the church overcoming the forces of evil coincides with the idea that the kingdom of God will prevail over its enemies and bespeaks the intimate association between the church and the kingdom. The second passage relates to the future organization of the church, not unlike the Jewish synagogue practices of Jesus’ day.
The church and the kingdom of God are not identical. As intimately related as the church and the kingdom of God are, the NT does not equate the two, as is evident in the fact that the early Christians preached the kingdom, not the church (Acts 8:12; 19:8; 20:25; 28:23, 31). The NT identifies the church as the people of the kingdom (e.g., Rev. 5:10), not the kingdom itself. Moreover, the church is the instrument of the kingdom. This is especially clear from Matt. 16:18–19, where the preaching of Peter and the church become the keys to opening up the kingdom of God to all who would enter.
The eschatological temple of God. Both the OT and Judaism anticipated the rebuilding of the temple in the future kingdom of God (e.g., Ezek. 40–48; Hag. 2:1–9). Jesus hinted that he was going to build such a structure (Matt. 16:18; Mark 14:58; John 2:19–22). Pentecost witnessed to the beginning of the fulfillment of that dream in that when the Spirit inhabited the church, the eschatological temple was formed (Acts 2:16–36). Other NT writers also perceived that the presence of the Spirit in the Christian community constituted the new temple of God (1Cor. 3:16–17; 2Cor. 6:14–7:1; Eph. 2:19–22; see also Gal. 4:21–31; 1Pet. 2:4–10). However, that the eschatological temple is not yet complete is evident in the preceding passages, especially in their emphasis on the need for the church to grow toward maturity in Christ, which will be fully accomplished only at the parousia (second coming of Christ). In the meantime, Christians, as priests of God, are to perform their sacrificial service to the glory of God (Rom. 12:1–2; Heb. 13:15; 1Pet. 2:4–10).
The bride of Christ. The image of marriage is applied to God and Israel in the OT (see Isa. 54:5–6; 62:5; Hos. 2:7). Similar imagery is applied to Christ and the church in the NT. Christ, the bridegroom, has sacrificially and lovingly chosen the church to be his bride (Eph. 5:25–27). Her responsibility during the betrothal period is to be faithful to him (2Cor. 11:2; Eph. 5:24). At the parousia the official wedding ceremony will take place, and with it the eternal union of Christ and his wife will be actualized (Rev. 19:7–9; 21:1–2).
The body of Christ. The body of Christ as a metaphor for the church is unique to the Pauline literature and constitutes one of the most significant concepts therein (Rom. 12:4–5; 1Cor. 12:12–27; Eph. 4:7–16; Col. 1:18). The primary purpose of the metaphor is to demonstrate the interrelatedness of diversity and unity within the church, especially with reference to spiritual gifts. The body of Christ is the last Adam (1Cor. 15:45), the new humanity of the end time that has appeared in history. However, Paul’s usage of the image, like the metaphor of the new temple, indicates that the church, as the body of Christ, still has a long way to go spiritually. It is not yet complete.
Faith in the context of the OT rests on a foundation that the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence is reliable. Trust in Yahweh is expressed through loyalty and obedience. The theme of responsive obedience is emphasized in the Torah (Exod. 19:5). In the later history of Israel, faithfulness to the law became the predominant expression of faith (Dan. 1:8; 6:10). OT faith, then, is a moral response rather than abstract intellect or emotion.
Faith is a central theological concept in the NT. In relational terms, faith is foremost personalized as the locus of trust and belief in the person of Jesus Christ.
In the Gospels, Jesus is spoken of not as the subject of faith (as believing in God), but as the object of faith. In the Synoptic Gospels, faith is seen most often in connection with the ministry of Jesus. Miracles, in particular healings, are presented as taking place in response to the faith of the one in need of healing or the requester. In the Gospel of John, faith (belief) is presented as something that God requires of his people (6:2829).
In the book of Acts, “faith/belief” is used to refer to Jews and Gentiles converting to following the life and teachings of Jesus Christ and becoming part of the Christian community. The book correlates faith in Christ closely with repentance (Acts 11:21; 19:18; 20:21; 26:18).
Paul relates faith to righteousness and justification (Rom. 3:22; 5:11; Gal. 3:6). In Ephesians faith is shown as instrumental in salvation: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God” (2:8).
In Hebrews, faith is described as “being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see” (11:1). Faith thus is viewed as something that can be accomplished in the life of the believer—a calling of God not yet tangible or seen. To possess faith is to be loyal to God and to the gospel of Jesus Christ despite all obstacles. In the Letter of James, genuine works naturally accompany genuine faith. Works, however, are expressed in doing the will of God. The will of God means, for example, caring for the poor (James 2:15–16).
In 1Peter, Christ is depicted as the broker of faith in God (1:21), whereas in 2Peter and Jude faith is presented as received from God (2Pet. 1:1). In the Letters of John “to believe” is used as a litmus test for those who possess eternal life: “You who believe in the name of the Son of God, ... you have eternal life” (1John 5:13).
The common experience/sharing of something with someone else.
The close and intimate fellowship that the members of the Trinity experience with one another (John 10:30; 14:10; 16:1415; 17:5) is something that Jesus prays for his people to experience themselves (17:20–26). He asks that believers “may be one, Father, just as you are in me and I am in you. May they also be in us so that the world may believe that you have sent me” (17:21). Just as the Father is in Jesus and Jesus is in the Father, believers are described as being in both the Father and the Son. The stated purpose for such fellowship is twofold: that the world may know and believe that the Father has sent the Son, and that the Father loves believers even as he has loved the Son (17:21, 23). Central to this fellowship between God and believers is the sharing of the glory that the Father and the Son experience (17:22). Jesus expresses similar truths in John 15:1–11 when he speaks of himself as the true vine and his followers as the branches who must remain in him because “apart from me you can do nothing” (v.5).
Paul frequently speaks of the believer’s fellowship with Christ, even though he rarely uses the word “fellowship” to speak of this reality. It is God who calls the believer into fellowship with Christ (1Cor. 1:9), but such fellowship involves both the “power of his resurrection and participation in his sufferings, becoming like him in his death” (Phil. 3:10). When believers celebrate the Lord’s Supper, they are participating in the body and blood of Christ (1Cor. 10:16–17). Far more frequently, Paul expresses the concept of fellowship with Christ by his use of the phrase “with Christ.” Believers have been crucified, buried, raised, clothed, and seated in the heavenly realms with Christ (Rom. 6:4–9; 2Cor. 13:4; Gal. 2:20–21; Eph. 2:5–6; Col. 2:12–13; 3:1–4). They also share in the inheritance that Christ has received from the Father (Rom. 8:16–17) and one day will reign with him (2Tim. 2:12).
The fellowship that believers have with one another is an extension of their fellowship with God. John wrote, “We proclaim to you what we have seen and heard, so that you also may have fellowship with us. And our fellowship is with the Father and with his Son, Jesus Christ” (1John 1:3). Just as walking in darkness falsifies a believer’s claim to fellowship with God, so also walking in the light is necessary for fellowship with other believers (1:6–7). Paul strikes a similar note when he says, “Do not be yoked together with unbelievers. For what do righteousness and wickedness have in common? Or what fellowship can light have with darkness? What harmony is there between Christ and Belial? Or what does a believer have in common with an unbeliever?” (2Cor. 6:14–15). The point is not to avoid all contact with unbelievers (cf. 1Cor. 5:9–10), but rather that the believer is so fundamentally identified with Christ that to identify with unbelievers should be avoided.
From the earliest days of the church, believers found very tangible ways to demonstrate that their fellowship was rooted in their common faith in Jesus. Immediately after Pentecost, “they devoted themselves to the apostles’ teaching and to fellowship, to the breaking of bread and to prayer.... All the believers were together and had everything in common” (Acts 2:42–44). This common experience led believers to voluntarily sell their possessions and share with any who had a need (2:45; 4:32). This meeting of very practical needs was motivated by a common experience of God’s abundant generosity in freely giving his Son (Rom. 8:32). The self-sacrificial sharing of resources became a staple of the early church (Rom. 12:13; Gal. 6:6; 1Tim. 6:18) and provided an opportunity for Paul to demonstrate the unity of the church when he collected money from Gentile churches to alleviate the suffering of Jewish Christians in Judea (Rom. 15:26–27; 2Cor. 8–9).
The word “Gentiles” is often used to translate words meaning “nations” or “peoples.”
In general, within the OT, Gentiles are not God’s people. God chose Israel to be his people, not other nations (Deut. 7:68; 10:15; 26:18–19). Israelite ancestry determines membership in the covenant people. Some writings thus forbid Gentiles from becoming part of God’s people (Ezra 9–10; Neh. 13).
The OT more commonly envisions Gentiles experiencing covenant blessing through Israel if they functionally become Israelites by keeping the law, including the parts we understand as ceremonial-ritual law. The law is that special life-giving and regulating aspect of the covenant that God revealed to Israel, which defines Israel (Lev. 18:1–5; 20:22–26; Deut. 4:1–8, 32–40; 6:24–25; 8:1–6; 10:12–11:32; 30:11–20; Josh. 1:7–9; Neh. 9:29; Pss. 119; 147:19–20; Ezek. 20:9–13, 21).
Such law/Israel-centered conditions for Gentiles relate to a broader OT understanding: God will reach and restore the world through Israel, the locus of his saving activity. God will bless the nations in and through Abraham’s descendants, Israel (Gen. 12:1–3; 17:4–6; 22:18; 26:4; 28:14). This covenant specifically involves keeping the law (e.g., circumcision [Gen. 17:9–14]). Some passages depict this happening through the nations being subject to Israel (Gen. 49:8–12; Num. 24:9, 17–19; Isa. 11:10–16; 14:2; 54:3). In other passages the nations will be blessed by Israel’s God as they come to Israel, bring back exiled Israel, serve Israel, present Israel with their own wealth, and/or fear Israel’s God (Isa. 45:23; 49:22–23; 51:4–5; 55:5; 60:3–16; 61:5–6; 66:12–13, 18–21; Mic. 7:12–17; Zech. 2:11; 8:22–23). Other passages further elucidate the law-defined nature of such Gentile participation in the God of Israel’s salvation (Exod. 12:48; Isa. 56:1–8; Jer. 12:14–17; Zech. 14:16–21). The portrait of the nations “flowing” up the mountain of God associates Gentile participation in God’s salvation explicitly with the law (Isa. 2:2–5; Mic. 4:1–5).
Situating Jesus and early Christianity within this matrix of Gentile sensitivities is illuminating. As the Jesus movement spread across the Mediterranean, proclaiming the ultimate salvation of the God of Israel in and through Jesus the Messiah, questions about how Gentiles experience this salvation of the Jewish God had paramount importance.
Some Christians, in line with traditional readings of the OT, thought that Gentiles must keep the law, becoming Jews to experience the God of Israel’s salvation in Jesus (Acts 11:1–3; 15:1, 5; Paul’s opponents in Galatia). Gentiles, after all, were separated from God and his salvation promises to Israel (Rom. 9:4–5; Eph. 2:11–13; 1Pet. 2:10). They stood under God’s condemnation, especially because they were controlled by their passions and sin, lacking self-mastery and the ability to live rightly (Rom. 1:18–32; Eph. 4:17–19; 1Thess. 4:5; 1Pet. 1:14, 18).
However, various NT authors, such as Paul, contend that Gentiles need not keep the law, functionally becoming Jews, in order to participate in God’s ultimate salvation in Jesus. Christ, the climax of Israel itself, has replaced the law’s centrality and ultimacy with himself and his death and resurrection (Rom. 10:4). Through being united to Christ by the Spirit, Gentiles are, apart from the law, grafted into true, redefined Israel and become Abraham’s descendants, inheriting God’s promised salvation for Israel (Rom. 3:21–4:25; 8:1–17; 9:30–10:17; 11:13–32; Gal. 2:11–4:7; Eph. 2:11–22; 3:4–6). In Christ, by the Spirit, Gentiles attain self-mastery over their passions and sin and thus live rightly before God, inheriting the kingdom of God in Christ (Rom. 6:1–8:30; 1Cor. 6:9–11; Gal. 5:16–26; 1Thess. 4:3–8). Various NT writings thus reconfigure the situation of Gentiles with respect to Israel’s God because of what God did in Christ.
Debates about Gentiles, the law, salvation, and what Christ means for these issues persisted after Paul. Early Christians lacked an unequivocal saying from Jesus on the matter, and not all accepted Paul and some other NT writings.
The tangible presence of God, experienced as overwhelming power and splendor. The main Hebrew word referring to glory, kabod, has the root meaning “heavy” (1Sam. 4:18), which in other contexts can mean “intense” (Exod. 9:3; NIV: “terrible”), “wealthy” (i.e., “heavy in possessions” [Gen. 13:2]), and “high reputation” (Gen. 34:19; NIV: “most honored”). When used of God, it refers to his person and his works. God reveals his glory to Israel and to Egypt at the crossing of the sea (Exod. 14:4, 1719). He carefully reveals his glory to Moses after Israel’s sin with the golden calf in order to assure him that he will not abandon them (33:12–23).
In the NT the glory of God is made real in the person of Jesus Christ (John 1:14; Heb. 1:3). He is, after all, the very presence of God. When he returns on the clouds, he will fully reveal God’s glory (Matt. 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 21:27).
The English word “gospel” translates the Greek word euangelion, which is very important in the NT, being used seventy-six times. The word euangelion (eu= “good,” angelion= “announcement”), in its contemporary use in the Hellenistic world, was not the title of a book but rather a declaration of good news. Euangelion was used in the Roman Empire with reference to significant events in the life of the emperor, who was thought of as a savior with divine status. These events included declarations at the time of his birth, his coming of age, and his accession to the throne. The NT usage of the term can also be traced to the OT (e.g., Isa. 40:9; 52:7; 61:1), which looked forward to the coming of the Messiah, who would bring a time of salvation. This good news, which is declared in the NT, is that Jesus has fulfilled God’s promises to Israel, and now the way of salvation is open to all.
Grace is the nucleus, the critical core element, of the redemptive and sanctifying work of the triune God detailed throughout the entire canon of Scripture. The variegated expressions of grace are rooted in the person and work of God, so that his graciousness and favor effectively demonstrated in every aspect of the created realm glorify him as they are shared and enjoyed with one another.
The biblical terminology informing an understanding of grace defines it as a gift or a favorable reaction or disposition toward someone. Grace is generosity, thanks, and good will between humans and from God to humans. Divine expressions of grace are loving, merciful, and effective. The biblical texts provide a context for a more robust understanding of divine gift. The overall redemptive-historical context of grace is the desire of the eternal God to bring glory to himself through a grace-based relationship with his creation. The Creator-Redeemer gives grace, and the recipients of grace give him glory.
Physiologically, the heart is an organ in the body, and in the Bible it is also used in a number of metaphors.
Metaphorically, the heart refers to the mind, the will, the seat of emotions, or even the whole person. It also refers to the center of something or its inner part. These metaphors come from the heart’s importance and location.
Mind. The heart refers to the mind, but not the brain, and in these cases does not involve human physiology. It is a metaphor, and while the neurophysiology of the heart may be interesting in its own right, it has no bearing on this use of language. Deuteronomy 6:5 issues the command to love God with all one’s heart, soul, and strength. When the command is repeated in the Gospels, it occurs in three variations (Matt. 22:37; Mark 12:30; Luke 10:27). Common to all three is the addition of the word “mind.” The Gospel writers want to be sure that the audience hears Jesus adding “mind,” but this addition is based on the fact that the meaning of the Hebrew word for “heart” includes the mind.
The mental activities of the metaphorical heart are abundant. The heart is where a person thinks (Gen. 6:5; Deut. 7:17; 1Chron. 29:18; Rev. 18:7), where a person comprehends and has understanding (1Kings 3:9; Job 17:4; Ps. 49:3; Prov. 14:13; Matt. 13:15). The heart makes plans and has intentions (Gen. 6:5; 8:21; Prov. 20:5; 1Chron. 29:18; Jer. 23:20). One believes with the heart (Luke 24:25; Acts 8:37; Rom. 10:9). The heart is the site of wisdom, discernment, and skill (Exod. 35:34; 36:2; 1Kings 3:9; 10:24). The heart is the place of memory (Deut. 4:9; Ps. 119:11). The heart plays the role of conscience (2Sam. 24:10; 1John 3:2021).
It is often worth the effort to substitute “mind” for “heart” when reading the Bible in order to grasp the mental dimension. For example, after telling the Israelites to love God with all their heart, Moses says, “These commandments that I give you today are to be upon your hearts” (Deut. 6:6). Reading it instead as “be on your mind” changes our perspective, and in this case the idiom “on your mind” is clearer and more accurate. The following verses instruct parents to talk to their children throughout the day about God’s words. In order for parents to do this, God’s requirements and deeds need to be constantly on their minds, out of their love for him. Similarly, love for God and loyalty are expressed by meditation on and determination to obey his law (Ps. 119:11, 112). The law is not merely a list of rules; it is also a repository of a worldview in which the Lord is the only God. To live consistently with this truth requires careful, reflective thought.
Emotions and attitude. The heart, as the seat of emotion, is associated with a number of feelings and sentiments, such as gladness (Exod. 4:14; Acts 2:26), hatred (Lev. 19:17), pride (Deut. 8:14), resentment (Deut. 15:10), dread (Deut. 28:67), sympathy (Judg. 5:9), love (Judg. 16:15), sadness (1Sam. 1:8; John 16:6), and jealousy and ambition (James 3:14). The heart is also the frame of reference for attitudes such as willingness, courage, and desire.
Holiness is an attribute of God and of all that is fit for association with him. God alone is intrinsically holy (Rev. 15:4). God the Father is holy (John 17:11), as is the Son (Acts 3:14), while “Holy” is the characteristic designation of God’s Spirit (Ps. 51:11; Matt. 1:18). God’s name is holy (Luke 1:49), as are his arm (Ps. 98:1), ways (Ps. 77:13), and words (Ps. 105:42).
With reference to God himself, holiness may indicate something like his uniqueness, and it is associated with attributes such as his glory (Isa. 6:3), righteousness (Isa. 5:16), and jealousy—that is, his proper concern for his reputation (Josh. 24:19).
God’s dwelling place is in heaven (Ps. 20:6), and “holy” functions in some contexts as a virtual equivalent for heavenly (11:4). God’s throne is holy (47:8), and the angels who surround it are “holy ones” (89:5; cf. Mark 8:38).
A corollary of God’s holiness is that he must be treated as holy (Lev. 22:32)—that is, honored (Lev. 10:3), worshiped (Ps. 96:9), and feared (Isa. 8:13).
While “holy” is sometimes said to mean “set apart,” this does not appear to be its core meaning, though it is an associated notion (Lev. 20:26; Heb. 7:26). Holiness, as applied to people and things, is a relational concept. They are (explicitly or implicitly) holy “to the Lord” (Exod. 28:36), never “from” something.
The symbolic representation of God’s heavenly palace, the tabernacle (Exod. 40:9), and later the temple (1Chron. 29:3), and everything associated with them, are holy and the means whereby God’s people in the OT may symbolically be brought near to God. For God to share his presence with anything or anyone else, these too must be holy (Lev. 11:4445; Heb. 12:14).
The OT system of worship involved the distinction between unclean and clean, and between common and holy, and the means of effecting a transition to a state of cleanness or holiness (Lev. 10:10). People, places, and items may be made holy by a process of consecration or sanctification, whether simply by God’s purifying presence (Exod. 3:5) or by ritual acts (Exod. 19:10; 29:36).
God’s faithful people are described as holy (Exod. 19:6; 1Pet. 2:9). In the OT, this is true of the whole people of God at one level, and of particular individuals at another. Thus, kings (Ps. 16:10), prophets (2Kings 4:9), and in particular priests (Lev. 21:7) are declared to be holy. While the OT witnesses to some tension between the collective holiness of Israel and the particular holiness of its designated leaders (Num. 16:3), the latter were intended to act as models and facilitators of Israel’s holiness.
In the NT the most common word used for “minister” is diakonos (e.g., 2Cor. 3:6), and for “ministry,” diakonia (e.g., 1Cor. 16:15 [NIV: “service”]). These words function as umbrella terms for NT writers to describe the whole range of ministries performed by the church. They can describe either a special ministry performed by an official functionary (1Cor. 3:5) or one performed by any believer (Rev. 2:19). In the early church, ministry was based not on institutional hierarchies but on services performed (1Tim. 3:113).
The ministry of Jesus. The church’s mind-set flows out of the way in which Jesus understood his ministry. He described his ministry pattern as that of serving (Matt. 20:28; Mark 10:45; John 13:4–17). Thus, he called his disciples to follow a model of leadership in the new community that did not elevate them above others (Matt. 20:20–28; 23:8–12; cf. 1Pet. 5:3).
Jesus’ ministry provides the paradigm for the ministry of the church. The NT writers describe the threefold ministry of Jesus as preaching, teaching, and healing (Matt. 4:23; 9:35; Mark 1:14, 21–22, 39; Acts 10:36–38). The disciples carried on the earthly ministry of Jesus by the power of the Spirit. They too engaged in preaching, teaching, and healing (Matt. 10:7–8; 28:19–20).
The ministry of the church. The church, because it is the body of Christ, continues these ministry responsibilities. In 1Pet. 4:10–11 is a summary of the overarching ministries of the church, which include speaking the words of God and serving. As a priesthood of believers (Exod. 19:4–6; 1Pet. 2:5, 9; Rev. 1:5–6), individual members took responsibility for fulfilling the various tasks of service. Thus, all Christians are called to minister (Rom. 15:27; Philem. 13; 1Pet. 2:16). Even when a member strayed, it was another believer’s responsibility to confront that wayward person and, if necessary, involve others in the body to help (Matt. 18:15–20).
Although ministry was the responsibility of all believers, there were those with special expertise whom Christ and the church set apart for particular leadership roles (Eph. 4:11–12). Christ set apart Apollos and Paul for special ministries (1Cor. 3:5; Eph. 3:7). The church called on special functionaries to carry out specific ministries. For example, the early church appointed seven individuals to serve tables (Acts 6:2). They appointed certain ones to carry the relief fund collected for the Jerusalem Christians (2Cor. 8:19, 23). As special functionaries, Paul, Apollos, Timothy, Titus, the elders, as well as others accepted the responsibility of teaching and preaching and healing for the whole church.
All the ministries of the church, whether performed by believers in general or by some specially appointed functionary, were based on gifts received from God (Rom. 12:1–8; 1Cor. 12:4–26). God gave individuals the abilities necessary to perform works of service (Acts 20:24; Eph. 4:11; Col. 4:17; 1Tim. 1:12; 1Pet. 4:11). The NT, however, makes it clear that when it comes to one’s relationship and spiritual status before God, all Christians are equal. Yet in equality there is diversity of gifts and talents. Paul identifies some gifts given to individuals for special positions: apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors, and teachers (Eph. 4:11). The description here is of special ministry roles that Christ calls certain individuals to fulfill based on the gifts given to them. The ones fulfilling these roles did not do all the ministry of the church but rather equipped the rest of the body to do ministry (Eph. 4:12–13). No one can boast in the gifts given to him or her because those gifts were given for ministry to others (1Cor. 4:7). Thus, gifts lead to service, and in turn service results in leadership.
It becomes the responsibility of those who lead to equip others for ministry. When others are equipped for ministry, they in turn minister and edify the whole body (Eph. 4:15–16; 2Tim. 2:1–2). The goal of all ministry, according to Paul, is to build up a community of believers until all reach maturity in Christ (Rom. 15:15–17; 1Cor. 3:5–4:5; Eph. 4:12–16; 1Thess. 2:19–20).
A mystery entails knowledge that is disclosed to some but withheld from others. Nothing is mysterious to God (Heb. 4:13), and he alone understands the full purpose of his will (Job 38:140:24; Isa. 46:10), but he also condescends to reveal portions of his will to those whom he chooses (John 16:15).
Jesus’ parables make known the character and future of God’s coming kingdom to his chosen servants, while also concealing it from those outside the circle (Matt. 13:18–23). Paul, by contrast, used “mystery” to refer to the disclosure of God’s plan for the redemption of humanity—namely, the inclusion of Gentiles within “Israel” (Rom. 11:25). This plan, foreshadowed in the OT but nevertheless hidden in essentials, had only recently been fully revealed in the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Rom. 16:25; Eph. 1:9; 1Tim. 3:16; cf. 1Pet. 1:10–12). The gospel message is therefore the revelation of this mystery, the proclamation of the truth about Jesus Christ, now made public to the world (Eph. 3:3–9).
A Pharisee commissioned by Jesus Christ to preach the gospel to Gentiles. His Jewish name was “Saul” (Acts 9:4; 13:9), but he preferred using his Roman name, especially when he signed his letters.
By our best estimates, Paul spent about thirty years preaching the gospel of Jesus Christ (AD 3467)—a ministry that can be divided roughly into three decades. The first decade of his ministry (AD 34–46) has been called the “silent years,” as we have few details from Acts or the Pauline Epistles about his activities. For example, we know that he preached in Damascus for a while and spent some time in Arabia (a total of three years [Gal. 1:17–18]). He made a quick trip to Jerusalem to meet Peter and James the brother of Jesus. Then he returned home to Tarsus, evidently preaching there for several years, until Barnabas brought him to Antioch in Syria to help with the ministry of this mixed congregation of Jews and Gentiles (Acts 9:26–30; 11:25–26). In the second decade of his ministry (AD 46–59), Paul spent most of his life on the road, an itinerant ministry of preaching the gospel and planting churches from Cyprus to Corinth. For most of the third decade (AD 59–67), Paul ministered the gospel from prison, spending over two years imprisoned in Caesarea, another two to three years in a Roman prison (Acts ends here), released for a brief time (two years?) before his final arrest and imprisonment in Rome, where, according to church tradition, he was executed.
During his itinerant ministry, Paul traveled Roman roads that led him to free cities (Ephesus, Thessalonica, Athens) and Roman colonies (Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, Derbe, Troas, Philippi, Corinth). Founding churches in urban centers afforded Paul more opportunities for ministry and for his work of making and repairing tents. Traveling within the borders of the Roman Empire also provided a better chance of protection as a citizen. At first, Paul and Barnabas covered familiar territory: Cyprus (Barnabas’s home region) and Anatolia (Paul’s home region). Then, with successive journeys Paul and other missionary companions branched out to Asia Minor, Macedonia, and Achaia. Some of the towns that Paul visited were small and provincial (Derbe, Lystra); others were major cities of great economic and intellectual commerce (Ephesus, Corinth, Athens). In the midst of such cultural diversity, Paul found receptive ears among a variety of ethnic groups: Gauls, Phrygians and Lycaonians, Greeks, Romans, and Jews. Previously, Paul’s Gentile converts had worshiped many gods (local, ethnic, and imperial), offered sacrifices at many shrines and temples, and joined in all the religious festivals (often involving immoral and ungodly practices). After believing the gospel, Paul’s predominantly Gentile churches turned from their idolatrous ways to serve “the living and true God” (1Thess. 1:9). Their exclusive devotion to one God quickly led to economic and political problems, for both Paul’s converts and the cities of their residence. No more offerings for patron gods, no more support for local synagogues or the imperial cult—Paul’s converts were often persecuted for their newly found faith by local religious guilds (idol makers!) and civic leaders courting Roman favor (Acts 17:6–9; 19:23–41; Phil. 1:27–30; 1Thess. 2:14–16). Indeed, Paul often was run out of town as a troublemaker who preached a message that threatened both the Jewish and the Roman ways of life (Acts 16:19–24; Phil. 3:17–4:1). It is no wonder that Paul’s activities eventually landed him in a Roman prison. It was only a matter of time before his reputation as a “lawbreaker” caught up with him (Acts 21:21). But that did not stop Paul. Whether as a prisoner or a free man, Paul proclaimed the gospel of Jesus Christ until the day he died.
Paul was a tentmaker, a missionary, a writer, a preacher, a teacher, a theologian, an evangelist, a mentor, a prophet, a miracle worker, a prisoner, and a martyr. His life story reads like the tale of three different men: a devout Pharisee, a tireless traveler, an ambitious writer. He knew the Scriptures better than did most people. He saw more of the world than did most merchants. He wrote some of the longest letters known at that time. To his converts, he was a faithful friend. To his opponents, he was an irrepressible troublemaker. But, according to Paul, he was nothing more or less than the man whom God had called through Jesus Christ to take the gospel to the ends of the earth.
In the OT there is no language or understanding comparable to modern ways of talking about prayer as conversational or dialogical. Prayer does not involve mutuality. Prayer is something that humans offer to God, and the situation is never reversed; God does not pray to humans. Understanding this preserves the proper distinction between the sovereign God and the praying subject. Therefore, prayers in the OT are reverential. Some OT prayers have extended introductions, such as that found in Neh. 1:5, that seem to pile up names for God. These should be seen as instances not of stiltedness or ostentation, but rather as setting up a kind of “buffer zone” in recognition of the distance between the Creator and the creature. In the NT, compare the same phenomenon in Eph. 1:17.
A presupposition of prayer in the OT is that God hears prayer and may indeed answer and effect the change being requested. Prayer is not primarily about changing the psychological state or the heart of the one praying, but rather about God changing the circ*mstances of the one praying.
The depiction of prayer in the NT is largely consistent with that of the OT, but there are important developments.
Jesus tells his disciples to address God as “Father” (Matt. 6:9; cf. Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6). Prayer to God is now to be made in the name of Jesus (Matt. 18:1920; John 14:13; 15:16; 16:23–26).
Prayer can also be made to Jesus (John 14:14), and such devotion to him in the early church is evidence of his being regarded as deity. Unlike anything prior in the OT, Jesus tells his followers to pray for their enemies (Matt. 5:44). Jesus and his followers serve as examples (Luke 23:34; Acts 7:60).
The Holy Spirit plays a vital role in prayers. It is by him that we are able to call out, “Abba, Father” (Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6). The Spirit himself intercedes for us (Rom. 8:26). Our praying is to be done in the Spirit (Eph. 6:18; Jude 20; possibly 1Cor. 14:15).
Jesus encourages fervent and even continual or repeated prayer (Luke 18:1–8), but not showy or repetitive prayer (Matt. 6:5–8).
Jesus becomes the model of prayer. He prays before important decisions (Luke 6:12–13) and in connection with significant crisis points (Matt. 14:23; 26:36–44; Luke 3:21; 9:29; John 12:27). He offers prayers that are not answered (Luke 22:41–44) and prayers that are (Heb. 5:7). Even as he tells his disciples to always pray and not give up (Luke 18:1 [which is also the meaning of the sometimes overly literalized “pray without ceasing” in 1Thess. 5:17 NRSV]), so he himself wrestles in prayer (Luke 22:41–44; Heb. 5:7). He has prayed for his disciples (John 17; Luke 22:32), and even now, in heaven, he still intercedes for us (Heb. 7:25). Indeed, our intercession before God’s throne is valid because his is (Heb. 4:14–16).
One of the names given to spiritual realities that were created by God in Christ but are now corrupted. Paul says that it is these “principalities” (Gk. archē), not “flesh and blood,” that form the real opposition for Christians (Eph. 6:12 KJV). Synonyms that appear in various Bible translations are “rulers,” “authorities,” “powers,” “spiritual forces,” and “thrones” (Rom. 8:38; Eph. 3:10; 6:12; Col. 1:16).
In comparing modern society to that of biblical times, it is important to acknowledge what is distinctive about prisons in many modern societies. Prisons serve multiple functions, including imposing incarceration as punishment for crimes committed, segregating dangerous criminals from the larger population, deterring crime by imposing a negative incentive, and rehabilitating offenders so that they can eventually return to society. In many cases where modern law imposes incarceration as the penalty for crime, ancient and biblical law imposed economic penalties (such as fines), corporal punishment (beatings), and capital punishment (death). In addition, many of the biblical references to prisons and prisoners involve what in modern society would be considered political rather than criminal incarceration.
The story of Joseph prominently features an Egyptian prison. Joseph was falsely put in prison for the crime of molesting his master’s wife (Gen. 39:1920), while his companions were imprisoned for the otherwise unspecified crime of causing offense to the king (40:1). As this story illustrates, the sentences were not of a predetermined duration, and release depended on the goodwill of the king (Gen. 40:13), a situation in which Paul also found himself hundreds of years later during Roman times (Acts 24:27). When Joseph imprisoned his brothers, it was on a presumption of guilt for the crime of espionage (Gen. 42:16). In Roman times, in contrast, certain prisoners had a right to be put on trial eventually, if not quickly (Acts 25:27; see also 16:37). Imprisonment could also be imposed for failure to pay a debt (Matt. 18:30). Joseph kept Simeon in prison as a guarantee that his brothers would fulfill a prior agreement (Gen. 42:19, 24). In addition to specialized dungeons, prisoners could also be confined in houses (Jer. 37:15; Acts 28:16) and pits (Zech. 9:11).
In both Testaments, release from prison is a symbol of God’s salvation. The theme is prominent in the psalms, as in Ps. 146:7: “The Lord sets prisoners free” (see also Pss. 68:6; 107:10; 142:7). In Acts 12:7 Peter is freed from prison by a divinely sent messenger. Paul wrote a number of letters from prison and identified himself as a prisoner of Christ (Eph. 3:1; Col. 4:10; 2Tim. 1:8; Philem. 1). Some texts refer in mythological terms to a prison that confines spirits or Satan (1Pet. 3:19; Rev. 20:7).
A technical term for “promise” does not appear in the OT, but its concept is present throughout Scripture. God unfolds the history of redemption by employing the idea of promises. The writers of the NT repeatedly assert that Jesus Christ has fulfilled God’s promises in the OT (e.g., Luke 24:4448; 1Cor. 15:3–8).
Most remarkable is the promise that God made to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (Gen. 12:1–3; 13:14–17; 17:4–8; 22:17–18; 26:1–5; 28:13–15). God called Abraham in order to give him three specific blessings: the land, descendants, and the channel of blessing among the nations. As a sign of his promise, God made a covenant of circumcision with Abraham and his descendants (17:10–14). With Isaac (26:1–5) and Jacob (28:13–15), God repeatedly reconfirmed the promise made to Abraham. At the time of the exodus and later the settlement in Canaan, God’s promise to Abraham was partially fulfilled by multiplying his descendants into millions and by giving them the promised land.
The central message of the NT is that God’s promises in the OT are fulfilled with the coming of Jesus Christ. Matthew’s numerous citation formulas are evidence of this theme. In Luke 4:16–21 Jesus pronounces the fulfillment of Isaiah’s promise (about the Messiah’s ministry [Isa. 61:1–3]) in his own life. The book of Acts specifically states that Jesus’ suffering and resurrection and the coming of the Holy Spirit are the fulfillment of the OT promises (2:29–31; 13:32–34). Jesus’ identity both as the descendant of David (Acts 13:23) and as the prophet like Moses (Acts 3:21–26; cf. Deut. 18:15–18) is also regarded as the fulfillment of the OT.
Paul’s view of God’s promises is summarized in this statement: “For no matter how many promises God has made, they are ‘Yes’ in Christ” (2Cor. 1:20). According to Rom. 1:2–3, Paul regards the gospel as the message that God “promised beforehand through his prophets in the Holy Scriptures regarding his Son.” In Rom. 4 Abraham’s faith is described in terms of his trust in God’s promises, which leads to his righteousness. He is presented as our model of faith in God’s promises. The famous phrase “according to the Scriptures” in 1Cor. 15:3–4 is, in a sense, understood by Paul as the fulfillment of God’s promises regarding Christ’s death and resurrection.
In the NT, God makes new promises based on the work of Christ, including the final resurrection and the second coming of Christ (John 5:29; 11:25–26; 1Cor. 15:48–57; 2Cor. 4:14; 1Thess. 4:13–18). Furthermore, the message of the gospel is presented as multiple promises, including eternal life, the fullness of life in Christ, the forgiveness of sins, the indwelling of the Holy Spirit, the peace of God, the knowledge of God, and the joy of God (Matt. 28:18–20; John 3:16; 10:10; 14:16, 27; 16:20–24; 17:25–26; Phil. 4:4–9; 1John 1:9).
A prophet is a messenger of God, a person to whom God entrusts his message to an individual or to a nation. Indeed, the last book in the OT is named “Malachi,” which means “my messenger.” Isaiah heard God ask, “Whom shall I send?” and he cried out, “Send me!” (Isa. 6:8). A good template for understanding the phenomenon is Moses and Aaron. Moses was to tell Aaron what to say, and Aaron would say it. “Then the Lord said to Moses, ‘See, I have made you like God to Pharaoh, and your brother Aaron will be your prophet’” (Exod. 7:1).
In the NT period there were a number of prophets. John the Baptist could point to Jesus and proclaim him to be the Lamb of God, who takes away the sins of the world (John 1:29). Agabus the prophet predicted a famine and, later, Paul’s arrest (Acts 11:28; 21:1011).
Paul lists “gifts of the Spirit” (1Cor. 12:4–11), including prophecy and various phenomena reminiscent of the OT prophets’ ecstatic state. Paul warns the Corinthians not to overdo this sort of thing and so to be mature (1Cor. 14:19–20). Near the end of his life, in one of his last letters, he speaks of prophecy as normative in the church, particularly in establishing an authoritative body of elders to rule and especially to preach the gospel (1Tim. 1:18; 4:14). Peter draws a connection between the ministry of the OT prophets and the proclamation of the gospel of Jesus Christ (1Pet. 1:10–12). Evangelism seems to be the normative mode for prophecy today: forthtelling by calling people to turn from their sins to Jesus, and foretelling by speaking of his return and the final judgment.
Thus, all Christians hold the office of prophet, even if they never participate in the ecstatic state experienced by the Corinthians. The greatness of a prophet is in how clearly the prophet points to Jesus. John the Baptist was the greatest of the OT prophets by that measure, but any Christian on this side of the cross and resurrection can proclaim the gospel even more clearly. Thus, the prophetic ministry of any Christian is greater than John’s (Matt. 11:11).
Five prophetesses are mentioned in the OT: Miriam (Exod. 15:20), Deborah (Judg. 4–5), Huldah (2Kings 22:14–20; 2Chron. 34:22–28), Isaiah’s wife (Isa. 8:3), and Noadiah (Neh. 6:14).
Similarly in the NT, Peter recognizes God’s promise through Joel being fulfilled in the gift of prophetic speech to women as well as men at Pentecost (Acts 2:18); and Paul, acknowledging that women prophesy publicly in the congregation, is concerned only with the manner of their doing so (1Cor. 11:5). The prophetess Anna proclaims the baby Jesus as the Messiah (Luke 2:36–38), Luke reports that the four unmarried daughters of Philip the evangelist also prophesy (Acts 21:8–9). The only false prophetess in the NT is the apocalyptic figure of Jezebel in Rev. 2:20.
The final book of the Bible is known by its opening line: “The revelation of Jesus Christ” (1:1 ESV, NRSV, KJV).
In powerful language and vivid imagery, Revelation presents the conclusion to God’s grand story of salvation, in which he defeats evil, reverses the curse of sin, restores creation, and lives forever among his people. Although the details are often difficult to understand, the main idea of Revelation is clear: God is in control and will successfully accomplish his purposes. In the end, God wins. As a transformative vision, Revelation empowers its readers/listeners to persevere faithfully in a fallen world until their Lord returns.
The overall purpose of Revelation is to comfort those who are facing persecution and to warn those who are compromising with the world system. During times of oppression, the righteous suffer and the wicked seem to prosper. This raises the question “Who is Lord?” Revelation says that Jesus is Lord in spite of how things appear, and he will return soon to establish his eternal kingdom. Those facing persecution find hope through a renewed perspective, and those who are compromising are warned to repent. Revelation’s goal is to transform the audience to follow Jesus faithfully.
Introduction (1:120). Chapter 1 includes both a prologue (1:1–8) and John’s commission to write what he sees (1:9–20). John’s vision focuses on the risen, glorified Christ and his continued presence among the seven churches.
Messages to the seven churches (2:1–3:22). Chapters 2–3 contain messages to seven churches of Asia Minor: Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea. The seven messages follow a similar literary pattern: a description of Jesus, a commendation, an accusation, an exhortation coupled with either warning or encouragement, an admonition to listen, and a promise to those who overcome. These messages reflect the twin dangers faced by the church: persecution and compromise.
Vision of the heavenly throne room (4:1–5:14). In chapters 4–5 the scene shifts to the heavenly throne room, where God reigns in majestic power. All of heaven worships the Creator and the Lion-Lamb (Jesus), who alone is qualified to open the scroll because of his sacrificial death.
Opening of the seven seals (6:1–8:1). The unveiling of God’s ultimate victory formally begins here. This section begins the first of a series of three judgment visions (seals, trumpets, and bowls), with seven elements each. When the sixth seal is opened, the question is asked, “Who can withstand it?” Chapter 7 provides the answer with its two visions of God’s people; only those belonging to God can withstand the outpouring of the Lamb’s wrath.
Sounding of the seven trumpets (8:2–11:19). The trumpet judgments, patterned after the plagues of Egypt, reveal God’s judgment upon a wicked world. Again, before the seventh element in the series, there is an interval with two visions (10:1–11; 11:1–14) that instruct and encourage God’s people.
The people of God versus the powers of evil (12:1–14:20). Chapter 12 offers the main reason why God’s people face hostility in this world. They are caught up in the larger conflict between God and Satan (the dragon). Although Satan was defeated by the death and resurrection of Christ, he continues to oppose the people of God. Chapter 13 introduces Satan’s two agents: the beast from the sea and the beast from the earth. The dragon and the two beasts constitute an unholy trinity bent on seducing and destroying God’s people. As another interval, chapter 14 offers a glimpse of the final future that God has in store for his people. One day the Lamb and his followers will stand on Mount Zion and sing a new song of redemption.
Pouring out of the seven bowls (15:1–16:21). The seven golden bowls follow the trumpets and seals as the final series of seven judgments. As the bowls of God’s wrath are poured out on an unrepentant world, the plagues are devastating indicators of God’s anger toward sin and evil. The only response from the “earth dwellers” (MSG; NIV: “inhabitants of the earth” [17:2, 8]; this is a common term in Revelation for unbelievers) is to curse God rather than repent (16:9, 11, 21).
Judgment and fall of Babylon (17:1–19:5). This section depicts the death of Babylon, a pagan power said to be “drunk with the blood of God’s holy people, the blood of those who bore testimony to Jesus” (17:6). The funeral laments for the deceased Babylon of chapter 18 give way to a celebration as God’s people rejoice over Babylon’s downfall (19:1–5).
God’s ultimate victory (19:6–22:5). This climactic section describes God’s ultimate victory over evil and the final reward for the people of God. This scene includes the return of Christ for his bride (19:6–16), Christ’s defeat of the two beasts and their allies (19:17–21), the binding of Satan and the millennial reign (20:1–6), the final defeat of Satan (20:7–10), and the final judgment and the death of death itself (20:11–15). Chapter 21 features a description of the new heaven and new earth, where God’s long-standing promise to live among his people is fully realized.
Conclusion (22:6–21). Revelation closes with final blessings for those who heed the message of the book and warnings for those who do not. Jesus’ promise to return soon is met with John’s prayer, “Come, Lord Jesus” (22:20).
There are numerous relationships in the OT that could be characterized as following a servant-master model. These included service to the monarchy (2Sam. 9:2), within households (Gen. 16:8), in the temple (1Sam. 2:15), or to God himself (Judg. 2:8). We also see extensive slavery laws in passages such as Exod. 21:111; Lev. 25:39–55; Deut. 15:12–18. The slavery laws were concerned with the proper treatment of Hebrew slaves and included guidelines for their eventual release and freedom. For example, Hebrew slaves who had sold themselves to others were to serve for a period of six years. On the seventh year, known also as the Sabbath Year, they were to be released. Once released, they were not to be sent away empty-handed, but rather were to be supported from the owner’s “threshing floor” and “winepress.” Slaves also had certain rights that gave them special privileges and protection from their masters. Captured slaves, for example, were allowed rest on the Sabbath (Exod. 20:10) and during special holidays (Deut. 16:11, 14). They could also be freed if their master permanently hurt or crippled them (Exod. 21:26–27). Also, severe punishment was imposed on a person who beat a slave to death (Exod. 21:20–21).
Slavery was very common in the first century AD, and there were many different kinds of slaves. For example, slaves might live in an extended household (oikos) in which they were born, or they might choose to sell themselves into this situation (1Pet. 2:18–25). Although slavery was a significant part of society in the first century AD, we never see Jesus or the apostles encourage slavery. Instead, both Paul and Peter encouraged godly character and obedience for slaves within this system (Eph. 6:5–8; Col. 3:22–25; 1Tim. 6:1–2; Philemon; 1Pet. 2:18–21). Likewise, masters were encouraged to be kind and fair to their slaves (Eph. 6:9; Col. 4:1). Later in the NT, slave trading was condemned by the apostle Paul as contrary to “sound doctrine” and “the gospel concerning the glory of the blessed God” (1Tim. 1:10–11).
Jesus embodied the idea of a servant in word and deed. He fulfilled the role of the “Servant of the Lord,” the Suffering Servant predicted by the prophet Isaiah (Isa. 42:1–4; 50:4–9; 52:13–53:12). He also took on the role of a servant in the Gospels, identifying himself as the Son of Man who came to serve (Mark 10:45) and washing the disciples’ feet (John 13:4–5). Paul says that in the incarnation Jesus took on “the very nature of a servant” (Phil. 2:7).
The special relationship between Jesus and his followers is captured in the servant-master language of the NT Epistles, especially in Paul’s letters (Rom. 1:1; Phil. 1:1; Titus 1:1). This language focuses not so much on the societal status of these servants as on the allegiance and honor owed to Christ Jesus.
In the world of the Bible, a person was viewed as a unity of being with the pervading breath and thus imprint of the loving and holy God. The divine-human relationship consequently is portrayed in the Bible as predominantly spiritual in nature. God is spirit, and humankind may communicate with him in the spiritual realm. The ancients believed in an invisible world of spirits that held most, if not all, reasons for natural events and human actions in the visible world.
The OT writers used the common Hebrew word ruakh (“wind” or “breath”) to describe force and even life from the God of the universe. In its most revealing first instance, God’s ruakh hovered above the waters of the uncreated world (Gen. 1:2). In the next chapter of Genesis a companion word, neshamah (“breath”), is used as God breathed into Adam’s nostrils “the breath of life” (2:7). God thus breathed his own image into the first human being. Humankind’s moral obligations in the remainder of the Bible rest on this breathing act of God.
The OT authors often employ ruakh simply to denote air in motion or breath from a person’s mouth. However, special instances of the use of ruakh include references to the very life of a person (Gen. 7:22; Ps. 104:29), an attitude or emotion (Gen. 41:8; Num. 14:24; Ps. 77:3), the negative traits of pride or temper (Ps. 76:12), a generally good disposition (Prov. 11:13; 18:14), the seat of conversion (Ezek. 18:31; 36:26), and determination given by God (2Chron. 36:22; Hag. 1:14).
The NT authors used the Greek term pneuma to convey the concept of spirit. In the world of the NT, the human spirit was understood as the divine part of human reality as distinct from the material realm. The spirit appears conscious and capable of rejoicing (Luke 1:47). Jesus was described by Luke as growing and becoming “strong in spirit” (1:80). In “spirit” Jesus “knew” what certain teachers of the law were thinking in their hearts (Mark 2:8). Likewise, Jesus “was deeply moved in spirit and troubled” at the sickness of a loved one (John 11:33). At the end of his life, Jesus gave up his spirit (John 19:30).
According to Jesus, the spirit is the place of God’s new covenant work of conversion and worship (John 3:5; 4:24). He declared the human spirit’s dependence on God and ascribed great virtue to those people who were “poor in spirit” (Matt. 5:3).
Human beings who were possessed by an evil spirit were devalued in Mediterranean society. In various places in the Synoptic Gospels and the book of Acts, either Jesus or the disciples were involved in exorcisms of such spirits (Matt. 8:2833; Mark 1:21–28; 7:24–30; 9:14–29; 5:1–20; 9:17–29; Luke 8:26–33; 9:37–42; Acts 5:16).
The apostle Paul pointed to the spirit as the seat of conversion (Rom. 7:6; 1Cor. 5:5). He described believers as facing a struggle between flesh and spirit in regard to living a sanctified life (Rom. 8:2–17; Gal. 5:16–17). A contradiction seems apparent in Pauline thinking as he appears to embrace Greek dualistic understanding of body (flesh) and spirit while likewise commanding that “spirit, soul and body be kept blameless” (1Thess. 5:23). However, the Christian struggle between flesh and Spirit (the Holy Spirit) centers around the believer’s body being dead because of sin but the spirit being alive because of the crucified and resurrected Christ (Rom. 8:10). Believers therefore are encouraged to lead a holistic life, lived in the Spirit.
The management of available resources in the recognition that God is the owner and provider of all things. The Bible is clear that God is the maker and owner of all things. The psalmist wrote, “The earth is the Lord’s, and everything in it, the world, and all who live in it” (Ps. 24:1). God told Job, “Everything under heaven belongs to me” (Job 41:11). In the same way, God says, “The silver is mine and the gold is mine” (Hag. 2:8). Stewardship is based upon the principle that God is the maker of all things. Since God is the creator and owner of all things, God’s followers are charged with managing what he has given.
While in the OT suffering is regularly an indication of divine displeasure (Lev. 26:1636; Deut. 28:20–68; Ps. 44:10–12; Isa. 1:25; cf. Heb. 10:26–31), in the NT it becomes the means by which blessing comes to humanity.
The Bible often shows that sinfulness results in suffering (Gen. 2:17; 6:5–7; Exod. 32:33; 2Sam. 12:13–18; Rom. 1:18; 1Cor. 11:27–30). Job’s friends mistakenly assume that he has suffered because of disobedience (Job 4:7–9; 8:3–4, 20; 11:6). Job passionately defends himself (12:4; 23:10), and in the final chapter of the book God commends Job and condemns his friends for their accusations (42:7–8; cf. 1:1, 22; 2:10). The writer makes clear that suffering is not necessarily evidence of sinfulness. Like Job’s friends, Jesus’ disciples assume that blindness is an indication of sinfulness (John 9:1–2). Jesus rejects this simplistic notion of retributive suffering (John 9:3, 6–7; cf. Luke 13:1–5).
The NT writers reveal that Jesus’ suffering was prophesied in the OT (Mark 9:12; 14:21; Luke 18:31–32; 24:46; Acts 3:18; 17:3; 26:22–23; 1Pet. 1:11; referring to OT texts such as Ps. 22; Isa. 52:13–53:12; Zech. 13:7). The Lord Jesus is presented as the answer to human suffering: (1)Through the incarnation, God’s Son personally experienced human suffering (Phil. 2:6–8; Heb. 2:9; 5:8). (2)Through his suffering, Christ paid the price for sin (Rom. 4:25; 3:25–26), so that believers are set free from sin (Rom. 6:6, 18, 22) and helped in temptation (Heb. 2:18). (3)Christ Jesus intercedes for his suffering followers (Rom. 8:34–35). (4)Christ is the example in suffering (1Pet. 2:21; 4:1; cf. Phil. 3:10; 2Cor. 1:5; 4:10; 1Pet. 4:13), and though he died once for sins (Heb. 10:12), he continues to suffer as his church suffers (Acts 9:4–5). (5)Christ provides hope of resurrection (Rom. 6:5; 1Cor. 15:20–26; Phil. 3:10–11) and a future life without suffering or death (Rev. 21:4).
The NT writers repeatedly mention the benefits of suffering, for it has become part of God’s work of redemption. The suffering of believers accompanies the proclamation and advancement of the gospel (Acts 5:41–42; 9:15–16; 2Cor. 4:10–11; 6:2–10; Phil. 1:12, 27–29; 1Thess. 2:14–16; 2Tim. 1:8; 4:5) and results in salvation (Matt. 10:22; 2Cor. 1:6; 1Thess. 2:16; 2Tim. 2:10; Heb. 10:39), faith (Heb. 10:32–34, 38–39; 1Pet. 1:7), the kingdom of God (Acts 14:22), resurrection from the dead (Phil. 3:10–11), and the crown of life (Rev. 2:10). It is an essential part of the development toward Christian maturity (Rom. 5:3–4; 2Cor. 4:11; Heb. 12:4; James 1:3–4; 1Pet. 1:7; 4:1).
Suffering is associated with knowing Christ (Phil. 3:10); daily inward renewal (2Cor. 4:16); purity, understanding, patience, kindness, sincere love, truthful speech, the power of God (2Cor. 4:4–10); comfort and endurance (2Cor. 1:6); obedience (Heb. 5:8); blessing (1Pet. 3:14; 4:14); glory (Rom. 8:17; 2Cor. 4:17); and joy (Matt. 5:12; Acts 5:41; 2Cor. 6:10; 12:10; James 1:2; 1Pet. 1:6; 4:13). Other positive results of Christian suffering include perseverance (Rom. 5:3; James 1:3), character and hope (Rom. 5:4), strength (2Cor. 12:10), and maturity and completeness (James 1:4). Present suffering is light and momentary when compared to future glory (Matt. 5:10–12; Acts 14:22; Rom. 8:18; 2Cor. 4:17; Heb. 10:34–36; 1Pet. 1:5–7; 4:12–13).
Throughout the Bible, believers are instructed to help those who suffer. The OT law provides principles for assisting the poor, the disadvantaged, and the oppressed (Exod. 20:10; 21:2; 23:11; Lev. 19:13, 34; 25:10, 35; Deut. 14:28–29; 15:1–2; 24:19–21). Jesus regularly taught his followers to help the poor (Matt. 5:42; 6:3; 19:21; 25:34–36; Luke 4:18; 12:33; 14:13, 21). It is believers’ responsibility to show mercy (Matt. 5:7; 9:13), be generous (Rom. 12:8; 2Cor. 8:7; 1Tim. 6:18), mourn with mourners (Rom. 12:15), carry other’s burdens (Gal. 6:1–2), and visit prisoners (Matt. 25:36, 43). See also Servant of the Lord.
In the OT, wisdom is a characteristic of someone who attains a high degree of knowledge, technical skill, and experience in a particular domain. It refers to the ability that certain individuals have to use good judgment in running the affairs of state (Joseph in Gen. 41:33; David in 2Sam. 14:20; Solomon in 1Kings 3:9, 12, 28). It can also refer to the navigational skills that sailors use in maneuvering a ship through difficult waters (Ps. 107:27). Furthermore, wisdom includes the particular skills of an artisan (Exod. 31:6; 35:35; 1Chron. 22:15 16). In all these cases, wisdom involves the expertise that a person acquires to accomplish a particular task. In these instances “wisdom” is an ethically neutral term, or at least that dimension is not emphasized. The wise are those who have mastered a certain skill set in their field of expertise.
The uniqueness of the OT wisdom literature (Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, etc.) is that it highlights the moral dimension of wisdom. Here “wisdom” refers to developing expertise in negotiating the complexities of life and managing those complexities in a morally responsible way that honors God and benefits both the community and the individual. Although it is difficult to pin down a concise definition, one can gain a better understanding of wisdom by investigating two important dimensions: wisdom as a worldview, and the traits of a person who is considered to be wise.
Who is wise? First, the wise are those involved in a lifelong process of character development. They manifest the virtues of righteousness, justice, and equity (Prov. 1:3; 2:9). The embodiment of these virtues culminates in the description of the woman of noble character at the conclusion of Proverbs (31:10–31). She exhibits self-control, patience, care, diligence, discipline, humility, generosity, honesty, and fear of the Lord (cf. James 3:13–18). She is the epitome of wisdom in its maturity and the model that all should emulate.
Second, the wise know the value of words and how to use them. They know when to speak, what to say, and how to say it (Job 29:21–22; Prov. 15:23; 25:11; Eccles. 3:7; 12:9–10). Wisdom and the wise place a premium on the power of words.
Third, the wise place great importance on relationships and on interaction with others. The wise person is the one who is open to the give-and-take of relationships (Prov. 27:5–6, 17, 19). Such a person develops the humility necessary to receive correction and criticism from others. Hearing criticism and changing wrong behavior are integral to wisdom (3:1–11). The wise appreciate insightful criticism because it helps them live life more productively (15:12). Wisdom is, ultimately, relational.
Fourth, the wise person develops the art of discernment (Prov. 1:2, 4–6). The sage is equipped with the ability to think critically. The very quality of wisdom itself invites the re-forming and rethinking of ideas. Sages are not interested in pat answers (26:4–5). Proverbs 16:1–9 throws a wrench in the conventional cogs of wisdom, claiming that although humans make their plans, God has the final say. Both Job and Ecclesiastes go head to head with conventional beliefs, probing more deeply into the complexities of life and the relationship between human and divine. No easy answers exist here. In contrast, fools do not use their mental faculties. They view wisdom as a commodity, a matter of learning some techniques, accepting certain beliefs, and memorizing a few proverbs (17:16). The wise, however, know that wisdom involves the art of critical thinking and interacting with others.
Fifth, and most fundamental, the wise person takes a God-centered focus toward life. Wisdom literature affirms, “The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom” (Prov. 9:10; cf. Prov. 1:7; Job 28:28; Eccles. 12:13). That this is the beginning step in the process of gaining wisdom means that one who misses this step can proceed no further along the path to wisdom. The fear of the Lord is to wisdom as the letters of the alphabet are to forming words. The wise gain wisdom by being in relationship with the Lord (Prov. 3:5–8). The fear of the Lord is the beginning as well as the culmination of wisdom.
Wisdom is a highly prized quality, superior to might and power (Prov. 25:15; Eccles. 9:13–16), and one must diligently seek it (Prov. 2:1–5). Yet in the end, wisdom is a gift that only God can give (Prov. 2:6–8; 1Kings 3:9).
Direct Matches
An expression for a range of responses to a crisis ordifficulty, from courage (Acts 4:29, 31; 2 Cor. 3:12; Eph. 3:12;Phil. 1:20; 1 Thess. 2:2) to shameless persistence (Luke 11:8).After Paul and Silas had been jailed in Philippi, they were willingto endure more persecution to preach to the Thessalonians (Acts16:16–24; 1 Thess. 2:2). To the Philippians, the apostlereflects on his bold preaching (Phil. 1:20). The Christians’relationship with Christ also gives them boldness to enter into God’spresence (Eph. 3:12; Heb. 4:16). The agent of Christian boldness isthe Holy Spirit (Acts 4:31).
Terminology
The KJV uses “dispensation” to translate some occurrences of the Greek word oikonomia, meaning “stewardship” or “administration of a household.” The Greek noun oikonomos, meaning “steward, manager, trustee, treasurer,” usually refers to an appointed individual responsible for the management of business affairs or an estate, and the related verb oikonomeō refers to acting in such a capacity.
The nuance of oikonomia in four instances (Eph. 1:10; 3:2, 9; Col. 1:25) reflects divine government and the outworking of God’s overarching plan on earth for humankind. God accomplishes this plan by assigning specific responsibilities and duties that people are obligated to fulfill. Covenant infidelity may endanger the viability of the arrangement or alter the terms significantly. Despite disobedience, humankind is responsible for any previous revelation as well as for the new body of truth, underscoring the progressive nature of divine revelation as a series of agreements undergoing the expansion process that culminates in the NT. Each dispensation involves a distinct body of revelation from God that governs his relationship with humankind. Biblical scholars who embrace this hermeneutical model see each dispensation as chronologically successive and, in the case of progressive dispensationalism, as reflecting progressive stages in salvation history. Consequently, each dispensation, although distinguishable from the others in content and character, builds upon the previous revelation to form a unified corpus of truth.
Three Theories on Dispensationalism
Wide disagreement exists among scholars concerning the hermeneutical implications of the term “dispensation” and how to interpret the biblical text based on that framework. The three major divisions of those who hold to some form of dispensations are covenant theologians, classical dispensationalists, and revised or progressive dispensationalists.
Covenant theology. Covenant theology presumes three covenants or dispensations. All Scripture may be categorized under two of those dispensations: a covenant of works and a covenant of grace. Through disobedience, humankind immediately violated the covenant of works, initiated by God in Gen. 2. Consequently, Gen. 3 introduces the covenant of grace, which supersedes the previous covenant and governs the remaining scriptural history. Genesis 12–17 expands the stipulations of the covenant of grace, and all subsequent covenants elaborate or reinforce the covenant of grace. A third covenant, the covenant of redemption, reflects an internal and timeless agreement within the persons of the Godhead concerning the plan and process of unfolding redemption for humankind.
In addition, covenant theology argues that the NT church comprises the new Israel, and that all the promises made to literal Israel in the OT have been transferred and reapplied to the church. This view finds root in the NT citations of OT texts describing historic Israel, which are then understood to represent a spiritual reality in the church.
Classical dispensationalism. According to the classical dispensational model, which originated with J.N. Darby (1880) and became more popularized with the advent of the Scofield Reference Bible (1909), the inauguration of a new dispensation occurs when God gives a further revelation that changes or adds to his governmental relationship with humankind. Each of the seven dispensations covering the extent of scriptural redemptive history represents an agreement between God and humankind characterized by a new divine revelation, followed by a test, disobedience, judgment, and restoration by means of a new revelation. These time periods are distinguished by an alteration of God’s method of dealing with humankind’s sinfulness and culpability. The seven dispensations are innocence, conscience, human government, promise, law, grace, and the millennium.
Classical dispensationalists broadly distinguish two distinctive plans for Israel and the church, recognizing each as a separate entity with promises specific to each group. They affirm clear delineations between the principles of law and grace: law requires humankind’s obedience to God, while grace enables believers to fulfill that righteousness through salvation effected by the sacrifice of Christ.
Relying on a consistently literal interpretation of prophecy, dispensationalists find no mention of the NT church in the OT, affirming Paul’s contention that the church was a “mystery” (Eph. 3:5–6) unforeseen by the earliest biblical writers. These believers understand the church as a parenthesis in the program of God for Israel, since the church is raptured out of the world on the advent of the great tribulation (1Thess. 4:13–17). Promises of Israel’s restoration and return have been temporarily suspended during the dispensation of grace; however, God’s promises to Israel will realize fulfillment during the millennial kingdom.
Revised or progressive dispensationalism. Revised dispensationalism removes the distinction between Israel, as God’s earthly people, and the church, as God’s heavenly people, following the millennial kingdom, since both entities share eternal life through salvation in the new Jerusalem. Jews and Gentiles maintain separate identities under the auspices of redeemed believers.
Those who support this view maintain a threefold concept of the kingdom of God: a universal reign over all things, a spiritual kingdom identical to the present church age, and an eventual political and national Davidic kingdom on earth during the millennium.
Progressive dispensationalism understands the separate dispensations as a unified series of arrangements whereby the manifestation of God’s grace increases with the passing of each dispensation. The dispensations reflect the comprehensive plan through which redemptive history is carried out. Those who support this view of dispensations advocate the partial fulfillment of OT prophecy in the church, with complete fulfillment realized with the culmination of God’s program during the millennial kingdom.
Progressive dispensationalists differ from covenant theologians in their acknowledgment of Israel and the church as distinct entities that coexist as God’s redemptive people. Classical dispensationalists believe that the dispensations reflect differing economies of divine administration aimed at manifesting the glory of God, while progressives argue that redemptive history provides the unifying principle of each dispensation. Both classical and progressive dispensationalists affirm the systematic and progressive unfolding of God’s revelation chronologically through successive dispensations or economies, and each group reinforces separate identities for Israel and the church as two groups subsumed under one people of God. Specific promises made to Israel by God will realize fruition during the millennial reign of Christ.
The word “Gentiles” is often used to translatewords meaning “nations” or “peoples.” It hasa Latin etymology from gens, meaning “clan” or “family”and, eventually, “race” or “people.” TheGreek word genos (“race, kind”) has a close relationship.In the Bible it loosely refers to nations or peoples other thanIsrael. English Bibles often translate it as “nations,”“peoples,” or “races.”
OldTestament
Ingeneral, within the OT, Gentiles are not God’s people. Godchose Israel to be his people, not other nations (Deut. 7:6–8;10:15; 26:18–19). Israelite ancestry determines membership inthe covenant people. Some writings thus forbid Gentiles from becomingpart of God’s people (Ezra 9–10; Neh. 13).
TheOT more commonly envisions Gentiles experiencing covenant blessingthrough Israel if they functionally become Israelites by keeping thelaw, including the parts we understand as ceremonial-ritual law. Thelaw is that special life-giving and regulating aspect of the covenantthat God revealed to Israel, which defines Israel (Lev. 18:1–5;20:22–26; Deut. 4:1–8, 32–40; 6:24–25; 8:1–6;10:12–11:32; 30:11–20; Josh. 1:7–9; Neh. 9:29; Pss.119; 147:19–20; Ezek. 20:9–13, 21).
Suchlaw/Israel-centered conditions for Gentiles relate to a broader OTunderstanding: God will reach and restore the world through Israel,the locus of his saving activity. God will bless the nations in andthrough Abraham’s descendants, Israel (Gen. 12:1–3;17:4–6; 22:18; 26:4; 28:14). This covenant specificallyinvolves keeping the law (e.g., circumcision [Gen. 17:9–14]).Some passages depict this happening through the nations being subjectto Israel (Gen. 49:8–12; Num. 24:9, 17–19; Isa. 11:10–16;14:2; 54:3). In other passages the nations will be blessed byIsrael’s God as they come to Israel, bring back exiled Israel,serve Israel, present Israel with their own wealth, and/or fearIsrael’s God (Isa. 45:23; 49:22–23; 51:4–5; 55:5;60:3–16; 61:5–6; 66:12–13, 18–21; Mic.7:12–17; Zech. 2:11; 8:22–23). Other passages furtherelucidate the law-defined nature of such Gentile participation in theGod of Israel’s salvation (Exod. 12:48; Isa. 56:1–8; Jer.12:14–17; Zech. 14:16–21). The portrait of the nations“flowing” up the mountain of God associates Gentileparticipation in God’s salvation explicitly with the law (Isa.2:2–5; Mic. 4:1–5).
TheServant Songs in Isa. 40–55 also reflect thislaw/Israel-centered nature of salvation for the Gentiles. Theservant, explicitly identified as Israel (41:8, 9; 42:18–19;44:1–2, 21; 45:4; 48:20; 49:3; 54:17; see also 65:9; 66:14),serves as God’s instrument for reaching the nations (42:1, 6;49:6; 52:15). The OT usually condemns Gentiles who remain separatefrom Israel to some form of judgment, especially Gentiles who haveharmed Israel.
SecondTemple Judaism and Early Christianity
SecondTemple Jewish sources exhibit diverse views about Gentiles, theirnature, their possible relation to God, and their fate at the end.Many reflect something resembling the OT views. Israel as God’speople defined by the law, variously understood and contested amongSecond Temple sources, generally continues to be the locus of God’sultimate blessing activities.
SituatingJesus and early Christianity within this matrix of Gentilesensitivities is illuminating. As the Jesus movement spread acrossthe Mediterranean, proclaiming the ultimate salvation of the God ofIsrael in and through Jesus the Messiah, questions about how Gentilesexperience this salvation of the Jewish God had paramount importance.
SomeChristians, in line with traditional readings of the OT, thought thatGentiles must keep the law, becoming Jews to experience the God ofIsrael’s salvation in Jesus (Acts 11:1–3; 15:1, 5; Paul’sopponents in Galatia). Gentiles, after all, were separated from Godand his salvation promises to Israel (Rom. 9:4–5; Eph. 2:11–13;1Pet. 2:10). They stood under God’s condemnation,especially because they were controlled by their passions and sin,lacking self-mastery and the ability to live rightly (Rom. 1:18–32;Eph. 4:17–19; 1Thess. 4:5; 1Pet. 1:14, 18).
However,various NT authors, such as Paul, contend that Gentiles need not keepthe law, functionally becoming Jews, in order to participate in God’sultimate salvation in Jesus. Christ, the climax of Israel itself, hasreplaced the law’s centrality and ultimacy with himself and hisdeath and resurrection (Rom. 10:4). Through being united to Christ bythe Spirit, Gentiles are, apart from the law, grafted into true,redefined Israel and become Abraham’s descendants, inheritingGod’s promised salvation for Israel (Rom. 3:21–4:25;8:1–17; 9:30–10:17; 11:13–32; Gal. 2:11–4:7;Eph. 2:11–22; 3:4–6). In Christ, by the Spirit, Gentilesattain self-mastery over their passions and sin and thus live rightlybefore God, inheriting the kingdom of God in Christ (Rom. 6:1–8:30;1Cor. 6:9–11; Gal. 5:16–26; 1Thess. 4:3–8).Various NT writings thus reconfigure the situation of Gentiles withrespect to Israel’s God because of what God did in Christ.
Debatesabout Gentiles, the law, salvation, and what Christ means for theseissues persisted after Paul. Early Christians lacked an unequivocalsaying from Jesus on the matter, and not all accepted Paul and someother NT writings.
The giving of gifts in the Bible has several nuances. It can refer to a goodwill gift or a peace offering given to a friend or relative (Prov. 18:16; 21:14). Thus, when Jacob seeks to make peace with his brother Esau, he sends gifts to him before they meet (Gen. 32:13; 33:10). Similarly, when Abigail intercedes with David on behalf of Nabal, she gives David a gift (1Sam. 25:27).
Ezekiel 46:17 illustrates that some gifts are regulated if they came from an inheritance. There are several references in the NT to the gifts of one local church to another (Acts 11:30; 1Cor. 16:3; 2Cor. 8:12, 20; 9:5; Phil. 4:17). The giving of these gifts has a positive effect for both those in need and those who give the gift.
Gifts are a traditional part of bridal arrangements in the Bible. Thus, Shechem requests to know the bride-price and gift when he asks for Dinah as his wife (Gen. 34:11–12). Likewise, Pharaoh gives a captured city as a dowry for his daughter’s marriage to Solomon (1Kings 9:16).
Gifts are integral in honoring another in hospitality and in approaching someone about a service. Israel instructs his sons to take gifts to Pharaoh when they go to purchase food (Gen. 43:11). It is customary to bring a gift to a man of God or prophet when asking for advice or prophetic insight (1Sam. 9:7; 1Kings 13:7; 2Kings 5:15; 8:8–9). People bring Solomon gifts when they seek an audience with him (1Kings 10:25). Additionally, gifts are part of the process of establishing a treaty (1Kings 15:19; 2Kings 16:8; 20:12).
Of course, gifts can be used for ignoble purposes as well. David sends a gift to Uriah in an effort to cover up his own sin (2Sam. 11:8).
Sacrifices of every type are conceived of as a gift to the deity with the intent of seeking favor or making restitution for sin (Lev. 22:18; Num. 31:52). Even mandatory offerings and dedicated land are considered gifts under the notion that God, as the Creator, owns all (Ezek. 45:16; 48:12, 20). This idea of giving a gift to God demonstrates the cost involved in approaching the deity. Interestingly, the priests and Levites who are associated with the sacrifices are described as a gift from God to the rest of the people (Num. 18:6–7).
The intentions behind the gift are important to God. Jesus states that one cannot be giving gifts to God and simultaneously holding on to contention with another in the community of faith (Matt. 5:23–24). Jesus commands that thankfulness to God be followed with the prescribed sacrifice (Matt. 8:4). Yet, an unwillingness to help others should not be hidden behind an ostentatious dedication to giving to God (Matt. 15:5; Mark 7:11). Likewise, Jesus warns against being overly legalistic about gifts and their benefit (Matt. 23:18–19).
On a fundamental level, gift giving has its origin in the gracious nature of God. God is the giver of all good gifts (James 1:17). He gives children to mothers (Gen. 30:20). A good life and reward for work are also gifts from God (Eccles. 3:13; 5:19). Jesus describes himself as a gift of God (John 4:10). Likewise, the Holy Spirit is God’s gift (Acts 1:4; 2:38; 11:17) and cannot be purchased with money (Acts 8:20). This gift of the Holy Spirit is given to Jew and Gentile alike (Acts 10:45).
Both grace and salvation are gifts from God (Rom. 5:15–17; 6:23; Eph. 2:8; 3:7; Heb. 6:4; 1Pet. 3:7). Finally, spiritual gifts are part of God’s good gifts (Rom. 1:11). These gifts are meant to help the church so that nothing needed for ministry is lacking in the body of Christ (Rom. 12:6; 1Cor. 1:7; 7:7; 1Tim. 4:14; 2Tim. 1:6; 1Pet. 4:10). Spiritual gifts are all governed by the greatest gift, that of love (1Cor. 13:2; 14:1).
In the NT the most common word used for “minister”is diakonos (e.g., 2Cor. 3:6), and for “ministry,”diakonia (e.g., 1Cor. 16:15 [NIV: “service”]).These words function as umbrella terms for NT writers to describe thewhole range of ministries performed by the church. They can describeeither a special ministry performed by an official functionary(1Cor. 3:5) or one performed by any believer (Rev. 2:19). Inthe early church, ministry was based not on institutional hierarchiesbut on services performed (1Tim. 3:1–13).
Theministry of Jesus.The church’s mind-set flows out of the way in which Jesusunderstood his ministry. He described his ministry pattern as that ofserving (Matt. 20:28; Mark 10:45; John 13:4–17). Thus, hecalled his disciples to follow a model of leadership in the newcommunity that did not elevate them above others (Matt. 20:20–28;23:8–12; cf. 1Pet. 5:3).
Jesus’ministry provides the paradigm for the ministry of the church. The NTwriters describe the threefold ministry of Jesus as preaching,teaching, and healing (Matt. 4:23; 9:35; Mark 1:14, 21–22, 39;Acts 10:36–38). The disciples carried on the earthly ministryof Jesus by the power of the Spirit. They too engaged in preaching,teaching, and healing (Matt. 10:7–8; 28:19–20).
Theministry of the church.The church, because it is the body of Christ, continues theseministry responsibilities. In 1Pet. 4:10–11 is a summaryof the overarching ministries of the church, which include speakingthe words of God and serving. As a priesthood of believers (Exod.19:4–6; 1Pet. 2:5, 9; Rev. 1:5–6), individualmembers took responsibility for fulfilling the various tasks ofservice. Thus, all Christians are called to minister (Rom. 15:27;Philem. 13; 1Pet. 2:16). Even when a member strayed, it wasanother believer’s responsibility to confront that waywardperson and, if necessary, involve others in the body to help (Matt.18:15–20).
Althoughministry was the responsibility of all believers, there were thosewith special expertise whom Christ and the church set apart forparticular leadership roles (Eph. 4:11–12). Christ set apartApollos and Paul for special ministries (1Cor. 3:5; Eph. 3:7).The church called on special functionaries to carry out specificministries. For example, the early church appointed seven individualsto serve tables (Acts 6:2). They appointed certain ones to carry therelief fund collected for the Jerusalem Christians (2Cor. 8:19,23). As special functionaries, Paul, Apollos, Timothy, Titus, theelders, as well as others accepted the responsibility of teaching andpreaching and healing for the whole church.
Allthe ministries of the church, whether performed by believers ingeneral or by some specially appointed functionary, were based ongifts received from God (Rom. 12:1–8; 1Cor. 12:4–26).God gave individuals the abilities necessary to perform works ofservice (Acts 20:24; Eph. 4:11; Col. 4:17; 1Tim. 1:12; 1Pet.4:11). The NT, however, makes it clear that when it comes to one’srelationship and spiritual status before God, all Christians areequal. Yet in equality there is diversity of gifts and talents. Paulidentifies some gifts given to individuals for special positions:apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors, and teachers (Eph. 4:11).The description here is of special ministry roles that Christ callscertain individuals to fulfill based on the gifts given to them. Theones fulfilling these roles did not do all the ministry of the churchbut rather equipped the rest of the body to do ministry (Eph.4:12–13). No one can boast in the gifts given to him or herbecause those gifts were given for ministry to others (1Cor.4:7). Thus, gifts lead to service, and in turn service results inleadership.
Itbecomes the responsibility of those who lead to equip others forministry. When others are equipped for ministry, they in turnminister and edify the whole body (Eph. 4:15–16; 2Tim.2:1–2). The goal of all ministry, according to Paul, is tobuild up a community of believers until all reach maturity in Christ(Rom. 15:15–17; 1Cor. 3:5–4:5; Eph. 4:12–16;1Thess. 2:19–20).
A mystery entails knowledge that is disclosed to some butwithheld from others. Nothing is mysterious to God (Heb. 4:13), andhe alone understands the full purpose of his will (Job 38:1–40:24;Isa. 46:10), but he also condescends to reveal portions of his willto those whom he chooses (John 16:15).
Oneway that God reveals such mysteries in the OT is through dreams andtheir interpretation. This is the dynamic at work in Dan. 2, whereGod reveals secrets to King Nebuchadnezzar through cryptic imagery.The meaning of this imagery remains hidden, however, until the“mystery was revealed to Daniel in a vision” (v.19).Once revealed, the dreams detail God’s plans for the future ofhis kingdom.
Similarly,Jesus’ parables make known the character and future of God’scoming kingdom to his chosen servants, while also concealing it fromthose outside the circle (Matt. 13:18–23). Paul, by contrast,used “mystery” to refer to the disclosure of God’splan for the redemption of humanity, namely the inclusion of Gentileswithin “Israel” (Rom. 11:25). This plan, foreshadowed inthe OT but nevertheless hidden in essentials, had only recently beenfully revealed in the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Rom.16:25; Eph. 1:9; 1Tim. 3:16; cf. 1Pet. 1:10–12).The gospel message is therefore the revelation of this mystery, theproclamation of the truth about Jesus Christ, now made public to theworld (Eph. 3:3–9).
Oneof the names given to spiritual realities that were created by God inChrist but are now corrupted. Paul says that it is these“principalities” (Gk. archē), not “flesh andblood,”that form the real opposition for Christians (Eph. 6:12 KJV).Synonyms that appear in various Bible translations are “rulers,”“authorities,” “powers,” “spiritualforces,” “thrones” (Rom. 8:38; Eph. 3:10; 6:12;Col. 1:16).
Imprisonmentof Criminals
Incomparing modern society to that of biblical times, it is importantto acknowledge what is distinctive about prisons in many modernsocieties. Prisons serve multiple functions, including imposingincarceration as punishment for crimes committed, segregatingdangerous criminals from the larger population, deterring crime byimposing a negative incentive, and rehabilitating offenders so thatthey can eventually return to society. In many cases where modern lawimposes incarceration as the penalty for crime, ancient and biblicallaw imposed economic penalties (such as fines), corporal punishment(beatings), and capital punishment (death). In addition, many of thebiblical references to prisons and prisoners involve what in modernsociety would be considered political rather than criminalincarceration.
Thestory of Joseph prominently features an Egyptian prison. Joseph wasfalsely put in prison for the crime of molesting his master’swife (Gen. 39:19–20), while his companions were imprisoned forthe otherwise unspecified crime of causing offense to the king(40:1). As this story illustrates, the sentences were not of apredetermined duration, and release depended on the goodwill of theking (Gen. 40:13), a situation in which Paul also found himselfhundreds of years later during Roman times (Acts 24:27). When Josephimprisoned his brothers, it was on a presumption of guilt for thecrime of espionage (Gen. 42:16). In Roman times, in contrast, certainprisoners had a right to be put on trial eventually, if not quickly(Acts 25:27; see also 16:37). Imprisonment could also be imposed forfailure to pay a debt (Matt. 18:30). Joseph kept Simeon in prison asa guarantee that his brothers would fulfill a prior agreement (Gen.42:19, 24). In addition to specialized dungeons, prisoners could alsobe confined in houses (Jer. 37:15; Acts 28:16) and pits (Zech. 9:11).
PoliticalImprisonment
Ina number of biblical stories individuals are imprisoned for what wewould today describe as political or ideological reasons. Samson wasimprisoned by the Philistines in retaliation for the havoc that hehad wreaked in their land and probably to prevent further incidents(Judg. 16:21). While in prison, Samson was enslaved. SeveralIsraelite and Judean kings were imprisoned by their Mesopotamianoverlords for offenses ranging from failure to pay taxes to revolt,including Hoshea (2Kings 17:4), Jehoiachin (2Kings25:27–29), Manasseh (2Chron. 33:11), and Zedekiah (Jer.52:11). In some cases, the imprisonment of such elites was brutal andinvolved torture (2Chron. 33:11; Jer. 52:11), though Jehoiachinwas later released from prison and allowed to live out his captivityin some comfort (2Kings 25:27–29).
Inthe NT, individuals were also imprisoned for such crimes. Barabbaswas imprisoned by the Roman government of Judea for participating inan insurrection (Mark 15:7). Saul of Tarsus imprisoned a number ofChristians, apparently without what we would today recognize as anycriminal offense (Acts 8:3). Peter was imprisoned by Herod forpolitical gain (Acts 12:4). Paul and Silas were imprisoned fordisturbing the peace of Philippi (Acts 16:23).
Imprisonmentof Prophets
Aspecial case of political incarceration is the imprisonment ofprophets. From the point of view of the biblical writers, prophetswere imprisoned for speaking the truth to a powerful person who didnot want to hear it. From the point of view of those in power,imprisoning dissenters was an important way of suppressing opinionsthat could undermine the regime. In some cases, the imprisonment ofdissenters or troublemakers was a prelude to execution (John theBaptist and Jesus). The practice of imprisonment instead of immediateexecution may reflect the ambivalent attitude of rulers towardcontroversial prophets: they could not be allowed to move aboutfreely in society, but they had some status or right as prophet thatprevented their execution. In some cases, prophets managed toconfront a king without being punished, suggesting that there was acertain level of tolerance for them even when they were notsupportive of royal power, a tolerance that might have contributed tothe use of imprisonment instead of execution.
Ahabimprisoned Micaiah son of Imlah after he delivered an unfavorableoracle (1Kings 22:27). Similarly, Asa imprisoned Hanani theseer (2Chron. 16:10). These kings may have hoped that suchtreatment would coerce better news in the future. Jeremiah (Jer.37:15) and John the Baptist (Mark 6:17) were also imprisoned fordelivering unwelcome messages to those in power.
TheologicalSignificance
Inboth Testaments, release from prison is a symbol of God’ssalvation. The theme is prominent in the psalms, as in Ps. 146:7:“The Lord sets prisoners free” (see also Pss. 68:6;107:10; 142:7). In Acts 12:7 Peter is freed from prison by a divinelysent messenger. Paul wrote a number of letters from prison andidentified himself as a prisoner of Christ (Eph. 3:1; Col. 4:10;2Tim. 1:8; Philem. 1). Some texts refer in mythological termsto a prison that confines spirits or Satan (1Pet. 3:19; Rev.20:7).
Imprisonmentof Criminals
Incomparing modern society to that of biblical times, it is importantto acknowledge what is distinctive about prisons in many modernsocieties. Prisons serve multiple functions, including imposingincarceration as punishment for crimes committed, segregatingdangerous criminals from the larger population, deterring crime byimposing a negative incentive, and rehabilitating offenders so thatthey can eventually return to society. In many cases where modern lawimposes incarceration as the penalty for crime, ancient and biblicallaw imposed economic penalties (such as fines), corporal punishment(beatings), and capital punishment (death). In addition, many of thebiblical references to prisons and prisoners involve what in modernsociety would be considered political rather than criminalincarceration.
Thestory of Joseph prominently features an Egyptian prison. Joseph wasfalsely put in prison for the crime of molesting his master’swife (Gen. 39:19–20), while his companions were imprisoned forthe otherwise unspecified crime of causing offense to the king(40:1). As this story illustrates, the sentences were not of apredetermined duration, and release depended on the goodwill of theking (Gen. 40:13), a situation in which Paul also found himselfhundreds of years later during Roman times (Acts 24:27). When Josephimprisoned his brothers, it was on a presumption of guilt for thecrime of espionage (Gen. 42:16). In Roman times, in contrast, certainprisoners had a right to be put on trial eventually, if not quickly(Acts 25:27; see also 16:37). Imprisonment could also be imposed forfailure to pay a debt (Matt. 18:30). Joseph kept Simeon in prison asa guarantee that his brothers would fulfill a prior agreement (Gen.42:19, 24). In addition to specialized dungeons, prisoners could alsobe confined in houses (Jer. 37:15; Acts 28:16) and pits (Zech. 9:11).
PoliticalImprisonment
Ina number of biblical stories individuals are imprisoned for what wewould today describe as political or ideological reasons. Samson wasimprisoned by the Philistines in retaliation for the havoc that hehad wreaked in their land and probably to prevent further incidents(Judg. 16:21). While in prison, Samson was enslaved. SeveralIsraelite and Judean kings were imprisoned by their Mesopotamianoverlords for offenses ranging from failure to pay taxes to revolt,including Hoshea (2Kings 17:4), Jehoiachin (2Kings25:27–29), Manasseh (2Chron. 33:11), and Zedekiah (Jer.52:11). In some cases, the imprisonment of such elites was brutal andinvolved torture (2Chron. 33:11; Jer. 52:11), though Jehoiachinwas later released from prison and allowed to live out his captivityin some comfort (2Kings 25:27–29).
Inthe NT, individuals were also imprisoned for such crimes. Barabbaswas imprisoned by the Roman government of Judea for participating inan insurrection (Mark 15:7). Saul of Tarsus imprisoned a number ofChristians, apparently without what we would today recognize as anycriminal offense (Acts 8:3). Peter was imprisoned by Herod forpolitical gain (Acts 12:4). Paul and Silas were imprisoned fordisturbing the peace of Philippi (Acts 16:23).
Imprisonmentof Prophets
Aspecial case of political incarceration is the imprisonment ofprophets. From the point of view of the biblical writers, prophetswere imprisoned for speaking the truth to a powerful person who didnot want to hear it. From the point of view of those in power,imprisoning dissenters was an important way of suppressing opinionsthat could undermine the regime. In some cases, the imprisonment ofdissenters or troublemakers was a prelude to execution (John theBaptist and Jesus). The practice of imprisonment instead of immediateexecution may reflect the ambivalent attitude of rulers towardcontroversial prophets: they could not be allowed to move aboutfreely in society, but they had some status or right as prophet thatprevented their execution. In some cases, prophets managed toconfront a king without being punished, suggesting that there was acertain level of tolerance for them even when they were notsupportive of royal power, a tolerance that might have contributed tothe use of imprisonment instead of execution.
Ahabimprisoned Micaiah son of Imlah after he delivered an unfavorableoracle (1Kings 22:27). Similarly, Asa imprisoned Hanani theseer (2Chron. 16:10). These kings may have hoped that suchtreatment would coerce better news in the future. Jeremiah (Jer.37:15) and John the Baptist (Mark 6:17) were also imprisoned fordelivering unwelcome messages to those in power.
TheologicalSignificance
Inboth Testaments, release from prison is a symbol of God’ssalvation. The theme is prominent in the psalms, as in Ps. 146:7:“The Lord sets prisoners free” (see also Pss. 68:6;107:10; 142:7). In Acts 12:7 Peter is freed from prison by a divinelysent messenger. Paul wrote a number of letters from prison andidentified himself as a prisoner of Christ (Eph. 3:1; Col. 4:10;2Tim. 1:8; Philem. 1). Some texts refer in mythological termsto a prison that confines spirits or Satan (1Pet. 3:19; Rev.20:7).
Secondary Matches
The following suggestions occured because
Ephesians 3:1-13
is mentioned in the definition.
Asia Minor, the land area of modern-day Turkey, was initiallysettled by the Hatti people between 2500 and 2000 BC. Toward the endof that period, the Indo-European Hittites, drawn to the mildclimate, began a slow settlement alongside the indigenous Hattis,mixing peaceably with them. By 1750 BC, the Hittites had become thedominant people group.
Inthe twelfth century BC the Hittites fell to the Sea Peoples. Theydeveloped coastal cities along the Aegean, which by the eighthcentury were conquered by the Greeks. The Lydian king Croesus came topower in 560 BC in Sardis and subdued the Greeks, only to fall in 546BC to Cyrus of Persia. In 334–333 BC Alexander the Greatdefeated the Persians in two key battles and won Asia Minor. AfterAlexander’s death, one of his generals, Seleucus, took over.Then, in 190 BC the Romans defeated the Seleucids and assumedcontrol. This inaugurated an extended period of peace, during whichtime Jewish communities of the Diaspora settled throughout theregion.
Themissionary journeys of the apostle Paul (Saul of Tarsus) took himinto and around much of Asia Minor, and directly or indirectly he wasresponsible for the establishment of most of the first-centurychurches there. The following cities of Asia Minor are mentioned inthe NT.
EasternMediterranean
Tarsus.The birthplace of the apostle Paul (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), Tarsusis located on the Mediterranean coast, nine miles northeast ofmodern-day Mersin. Tarsus became the capital of the Roman province ofCilicia in 67 BC. Cleopatra and Mark Antony met and built their fleetin this grand city. When his life was threatened after hisconversion, Paul was sent to Tarsus from Jerusalem (9:30).
Antioch.Antioch (Antakya) is located just inland from the Mediterraneancoast, on the east bank of the Orontes River. Jewish and Gentilebelievers who fled Jerusalem after the death of Stephen planted achurch here, where followers of Jesus were first called “Christians.”Barnabas brought Saul from Tarsus to Antioch, where they laboredtogether for a year, teaching the church, prior to setting off ontheir first missionary journey (Acts 11:19–30). Paul laterreturned, along with Silas, bearing the requirements for Gentilebelievers from the Jerusalem council (15:22–35).
SouthernPorts
Seleucia.Known today as Samandağ, Seleucia was Antioch’s port, theplace from which Saul, Barnabas, and John Mark embarked on theirfirst missionary journey in AD 47 (Acts 13:4).
Pergain Pamphylia.Perga is just east of Antalya on the southern Mediterranean coast.Archimedes’ student Apollonius the mathematician lived here inthe late third century BC. On their first missionary journey, Pauland Barnabas disembarked in Perga for destinations in southwesternAsia Minor, while John Mark left them to return to Jerusalem (Acts13:13–14). On their return trip of the same journey, Paul andBarnabas stopped in Perga again, this time preaching before headingto Attalia (14:25).
Galatia
Thefollowing cities became part of the politically defined Romanprovince of Galatia in 25 BC. They are to be distinguished fromethnic Galatia, which is a region further north, around modern-dayAnkara.
PisidianAntioch.Modern Yalvaç, or Pisidian Antioch, is northeast of Isparta inthe lake region. On their first missionary journey, Paul and Barnabaspreached in the synagogue here and generated enormous interest in thegospel (Acts 13:14–43). The following Sabbath, nearly theentire city came out to listen to them. Jealous Jewish leadersincited a persecution, causing Paul and Barnabas to reorient theirministry to Gentiles and then leave the region for Iconium(13:26–51). They returned on their way back to Antioch tostrengthen the disciples and appoint elders (14:21–23).
Iconium.Iconium, today called Konya, is about sixty-five miles southeast ofPisidian Antioch. It is one of the most ancient settlements of theregion, dating to the third millennium BC. Paul and Barnabas preachedin the synagogue here on their first missionary journey, initiallywinning Jewish and Gentile converts but angering other Jews. Paul andBarnabas eventually feared for their safety and escaped to Lystra andDerbe (Acts 14:1–6). However, they came back on the return tripto Antioch (14:21–23). Iconium is also noteworthy as the homeof the ascetic St. Thecla from the apocryphal second-centuryChristian text Acts of Paul and Thecla.
Lystra.Frequently mentioned with Derbe (Acts 14:6; 16:1), Lystra (modernHatunsaray) is nineteen miles south of Iconium. Paul and Barnabasfled here from Iconium and preached. Paul healed a lame man, and as aresult he and Barnabas were presumed by the enthusiastic crowd to beZeus and Hermes. At the instigation of Paul’s Jewish opponents,the crowd’s sentiments turned, and Paul was nearly stoned todeath. He and Barnabas left for Derbe the following day (14:6–20),but they came back on their return trip (14:21–23). Paulreturned on his second missionary journey, where he met his protégé,Timothy (16:1–2).
Derbe.About fifty miles southeast of Lystra and slightly north ofpresent-day Karaman is Derbe. Paul and Barnabas fled here afterPaul’s stoning in Lystra on their first missionary journey,preached the gospel, made many disciples, and appointed elders (Acts14:21–23). Among the disciples likely was Gaius, who lateraccompanied Paul during his third missionary journey (Acts 20:4).
WesternAegean Ports
Troas.Troas was a major northwest seaport located about twelve milessouthwest of Troy. On his second missionary journey, Paul, travelingwith Silas and Timothy, was prevented from entering Bithynia by theSpirit of Christ and went instead to Troas. Here he had a visionbeckoning him to Macedonia, which he promptly obeyed (Acts 16:6–11).Because this is the first of the so-called “we” passagesin Acts, Luke may have joined the group here (16:10). Paul alsostopped at Troas on the return to Jerusalem from his third missionaryjourney. There he raised Eutychus after the latter’s traumaticfall (20:4–12). Troas is mentioned twice more, suggesting thatPaul spent time here in addition to the above visits (2 Cor.2:12–13; 2 Tim. 4:13).
Adramyttium.A few miles south of Troas was the port of Adramyttium. It was theorigin of the ship that transported Paul from Caesarea to Myra aroundAD 60 en route to Rome (Acts 27:2).
Assos.Assos is an acropolis sitting 774 feet above sea level, up from thevillage of Behramkale. It overlooks the Bay of Edremit and has asplendid view of Lesbos. Doric columns from the seventh-century BCtemple of Athena are prominent at the site. According to Acts20:13–14, on his return from his third missionary journey, Paulwent overland from Troas to Assos, and there he joined his travelingcompanions on their ship. From here on the way to Miletus, they madeseveral nearby island stops off the coast of Asia Minor: Mitylene onLesbos, Chios, and Samos (20:14–16).
Miletus.Located about twenty miles south of Ephesus, at the point where theMeander River met the Gulf of Latmus (now silted over), was theimportant southwestern seaport of Miletus. The city was significantin the NT era for its four harbors. A center for commerce,scholarship, geometry, and science, it was also the prototype forprinciples of city planning later applied throughout the RomanEmpire. On his third missionary journey, Paul’s farewell to theEphesian elders took place here (Acts 20:15–38). Later he leftthe ill Trophimus in Miletus (2 Tim. 4:20).
SouthwesternPorts
Patara.Sitting on the Mediterranean coast at the mouth of the Xanthus River,about forty miles west of present-day Demre, Patara was a flourishingharbor and commercial center in antiquity. Paul changed ships here ashe returned to Jerusalem from his third missionary journey, afterisland stops in Kos and Rhodes (Acts 21:1–2).
Myra.Myra is a coastal ruin due south of present-day Demre. In the NT era,the seaport featured a Roman theater, Roman baths, and two rock-cutnecropolises. Here, Paul changed ships around AD 60 on his way toRome while in the custody of a centurion (Acts 27:5). Myra is perhapsbest known as the home of the fourth-century bishop St. Nicholas,who was from nearby Patara.
Cnidus.At the tip of the long, narrow Datca peninsula on the extremesouthwestern corner of Asia Minor lies Cnidus. Founded around 360 BC,the acropolis rises 1,000 feet above sea level. The port included twoharbors and four theaters but was most famous for its fourth-centuryBC statue of Aphrodite, carved by the Athenian sculptor Praxiteles.Around AD 60 the ship carrying Paul to Rome stopped here because ofslow winds and changed course (Acts 27:7).
SevenChurches of Revelation; Lycus Valley
Theseven churches of Rev. 1–3 lay along a north-south ellipticalroute in western Asia Minor. Laodicea, the seventh, forms a tightgeographic triangle with Hierapolis and Colossae in the Lycus Valley.
Ephesus.Known today as Selçuk, ancient Ephesus is located on theAegean coast of Asia Minor at the mouth of the Cayster River. It wasfounded in the eleventh century BC by the Ionians and later ruledsuccessively by the Athenians, Spartans, Persians, and Greeks. Romangovernance began in 190 BC. Later, Ephesus became the capital of theprovince of Asia, as well as its most important commercial center.During the NT era, the Artemision (see Artemis) was an importantpilgrimage site.
Paulstopped in Ephesus briefly on his second missionary journey, leavingPriscilla and Aquila. They later encountered and mentored Apollosthere (Acts 18:19–26). On his third journey, Paul remained inEphesus for three years, teaching, performing miracles, and healingthe sick (19:1–22) until the riot incited by Demetrius thesilversmith (20:1). He wrote 1 Corinthians in Ephesus (1 Cor.16:8) and later wrote to the Ephesians from his Roman prison cell(Eph. 3:1) as well as to Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tim. 1:3).
InRev. 2:1–7 the Ephesian church is commended for itsperseverance but chastised for having lost its first love.
Smyrna.Smyrna (modern İzmir) is located about thirty-five miles northalong the coast from Ephesus. In 195 BC it became the first city inAsia Minor to erect a temple for the imperial cult, and by the nextcentury it was known as “the ornament of Asia.” In itsletter, which mentions no negatives, the church is encouraged to befaithful in its suffering (Rev. 2:8–11).
Pergamum.About seventy miles north of Smyrna is Pergamum (modern Bergama). Thedazzling acropolis sits one thousand feet high and about sixteenmiles inland from the Aegean. The Attalids, who ruled 263–133BC, allied Pergamum with Rome and built it into a major religious andintellectual center, constructing the great altar to Zeus Soter, thetemple to Athena Nicephorus, and the large complex dedicated toAsclepius Soter. They also established a ruler cult and built alibrary containing two hundred thousand volumes, which at its peakwas second only to the library at Alexandria.
Theletter to the church (Rev. 2:12–17) references Satan’sthrone, which many believe to be a reference to the altar to Zeus.The church is commended for its faithfulness and yet is admonishedfor tolerating those advocating pagan practices within the community.
Thyatira.Thyatira (now called Akhisar) is about thirty-five miles southeast ofPergamum. It was mainly noted as having a significant concentrationof trade guilds, especially those connected with textiles. Lydia,Paul’s disciple and host in Philippi, was a dealer in purplecloth from Thyatira (Acts 16:14). The church is commended for itsgood deeds but criticized for tolerating the false teacher Jezebel(Rev. 2:18–29).
Sardis.Forty-five miles east of Smyrna, on the banks of the Pactolus, isSardis, where Croesus, the sixth-century BC Lydian king, was said tohave panned for gold. He also built an impressive Ionic temple toArtemis here. Archaeological evidence points to the presence of asignificant Jewish community in Sardis, about which the NT is silent.
Theletter to Sardis is a stern warning to wake up, highlighting thechurch’s incomplete deeds and impurity (Rev. 3:1–6).
Philadelphia.Philadelphia (modern Alaşehir) is twenty-six miles southwest ofSardis on the Cogamis River. The city was noted for its wineproduction, and it was nicknamed “Little Athens” duringthe Roman era. Its letter is thoroughly positive; the church iscommended for its deeds and faithfulness (Rev. 3:7–13).
Laodicea.Laodicea is located about a hundred miles east of Ephesus, in avalley where the Lycus River joins the Meander; Hierapolis is just tothe north, and Colossae just to the east. Laodicea was founded in thethird century BC by the Seleucid king Antiochus II, who named itafter his wife. Cicero served as proconsul there in 51 BC.
Laodiceawas a prosperous city, a center for banking, eye salve (“Phrygianpowder”), and wool production. Its water was supplied viaaqueducts from Hierapolis’s hot springs, but it arrivedlukewarm and heavy with mineral impurities—no match for eitherits hot source or Colossae’s cold springs. The Laodicean letteremploys all of this background in its harsh message to the church,which it describes as tepid, poor, blind, and naked (Rev. 3:14–22).
Hierapolis.Eight miles to the north of Laodicea, Hierapolis sits atop dramaticwhite cliffs created by its hot springs (Col. 4:13). The city washome to the reputed entrance to the underworld, the Plutonium, andhad an enormous necropolis.
Colossae.Colossae, ten miles east of Laodicea, was a center for dyed red wool.Although wealthy in the late fourth century BC, it was later eclipsedby Laodicea.
Thechurches in Laodicea, Hierapolis, and Colossae (the oldest of thethree cities) were begun by Epaphras and shared letters, includingPaul’s letter to the Colossians (Col. 4:13–16). The slaveOnesimus carried it, along with the Letter to Philemon, to Colossae,where Philemon hosted the house church (Col. 4:9; Philem. 10–12).
Asia Minor, the land area of modern-day Turkey, was initiallysettled by the Hatti people between 2500 and 2000 BC. Toward the endof that period, the Indo-European Hittites, drawn to the mildclimate, began a slow settlement alongside the indigenous Hattis,mixing peaceably with them. By 1750 BC, the Hittites had become thedominant people group.
Inthe twelfth century BC the Hittites fell to the Sea Peoples. Theydeveloped coastal cities along the Aegean, which by the eighthcentury were conquered by the Greeks. The Lydian king Croesus came topower in 560 BC in Sardis and subdued the Greeks, only to fall in 546BC to Cyrus of Persia. In 334–333 BC Alexander the Greatdefeated the Persians in two key battles and won Asia Minor. AfterAlexander’s death, one of his generals, Seleucus, took over.Then, in 190 BC the Romans defeated the Seleucids and assumedcontrol. This inaugurated an extended period of peace, during whichtime Jewish communities of the Diaspora settled throughout theregion.
Themissionary journeys of the apostle Paul (Saul of Tarsus) took himinto and around much of Asia Minor, and directly or indirectly he wasresponsible for the establishment of most of the first-centurychurches there. The following cities of Asia Minor are mentioned inthe NT.
EasternMediterranean
Tarsus.The birthplace of the apostle Paul (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), Tarsusis located on the Mediterranean coast, nine miles northeast ofmodern-day Mersin. Tarsus became the capital of the Roman province ofCilicia in 67 BC. Cleopatra and Mark Antony met and built their fleetin this grand city. When his life was threatened after hisconversion, Paul was sent to Tarsus from Jerusalem (9:30).
Antioch.Antioch (Antakya) is located just inland from the Mediterraneancoast, on the east bank of the Orontes River. Jewish and Gentilebelievers who fled Jerusalem after the death of Stephen planted achurch here, where followers of Jesus were first called “Christians.”Barnabas brought Saul from Tarsus to Antioch, where they laboredtogether for a year, teaching the church, prior to setting off ontheir first missionary journey (Acts 11:19–30). Paul laterreturned, along with Silas, bearing the requirements for Gentilebelievers from the Jerusalem council (15:22–35).
SouthernPorts
Seleucia.Known today as Samandağ, Seleucia was Antioch’s port, theplace from which Saul, Barnabas, and John Mark embarked on theirfirst missionary journey in AD 47 (Acts 13:4).
Pergain Pamphylia.Perga is just east of Antalya on the southern Mediterranean coast.Archimedes’ student Apollonius the mathematician lived here inthe late third century BC. On their first missionary journey, Pauland Barnabas disembarked in Perga for destinations in southwesternAsia Minor, while John Mark left them to return to Jerusalem (Acts13:13–14). On their return trip of the same journey, Paul andBarnabas stopped in Perga again, this time preaching before headingto Attalia (14:25).
Galatia
Thefollowing cities became part of the politically defined Romanprovince of Galatia in 25 BC. They are to be distinguished fromethnic Galatia, which is a region further north, around modern-dayAnkara.
PisidianAntioch.Modern Yalvaç, or Pisidian Antioch, is northeast of Isparta inthe lake region. On their first missionary journey, Paul and Barnabaspreached in the synagogue here and generated enormous interest in thegospel (Acts 13:14–43). The following Sabbath, nearly theentire city came out to listen to them. Jealous Jewish leadersincited a persecution, causing Paul and Barnabas to reorient theirministry to Gentiles and then leave the region for Iconium(13:26–51). They returned on their way back to Antioch tostrengthen the disciples and appoint elders (14:21–23).
Iconium.Iconium, today called Konya, is about sixty-five miles southeast ofPisidian Antioch. It is one of the most ancient settlements of theregion, dating to the third millennium BC. Paul and Barnabas preachedin the synagogue here on their first missionary journey, initiallywinning Jewish and Gentile converts but angering other Jews. Paul andBarnabas eventually feared for their safety and escaped to Lystra andDerbe (Acts 14:1–6). However, they came back on the return tripto Antioch (14:21–23). Iconium is also noteworthy as the homeof the ascetic St. Thecla from the apocryphal second-centuryChristian text Acts of Paul and Thecla.
Lystra.Frequently mentioned with Derbe (Acts 14:6; 16:1), Lystra (modernHatunsaray) is nineteen miles south of Iconium. Paul and Barnabasfled here from Iconium and preached. Paul healed a lame man, and as aresult he and Barnabas were presumed by the enthusiastic crowd to beZeus and Hermes. At the instigation of Paul’s Jewish opponents,the crowd’s sentiments turned, and Paul was nearly stoned todeath. He and Barnabas left for Derbe the following day (14:6–20),but they came back on their return trip (14:21–23). Paulreturned on his second missionary journey, where he met his protégé,Timothy (16:1–2).
Derbe.About fifty miles southeast of Lystra and slightly north ofpresent-day Karaman is Derbe. Paul and Barnabas fled here afterPaul’s stoning in Lystra on their first missionary journey,preached the gospel, made many disciples, and appointed elders (Acts14:21–23). Among the disciples likely was Gaius, who lateraccompanied Paul during his third missionary journey (Acts 20:4).
WesternAegean Ports
Troas.Troas was a major northwest seaport located about twelve milessouthwest of Troy. On his second missionary journey, Paul, travelingwith Silas and Timothy, was prevented from entering Bithynia by theSpirit of Christ and went instead to Troas. Here he had a visionbeckoning him to Macedonia, which he promptly obeyed (Acts 16:6–11).Because this is the first of the so-called “we” passagesin Acts, Luke may have joined the group here (16:10). Paul alsostopped at Troas on the return to Jerusalem from his third missionaryjourney. There he raised Eutychus after the latter’s traumaticfall (20:4–12). Troas is mentioned twice more, suggesting thatPaul spent time here in addition to the above visits (2 Cor.2:12–13; 2 Tim. 4:13).
Adramyttium.A few miles south of Troas was the port of Adramyttium. It was theorigin of the ship that transported Paul from Caesarea to Myra aroundAD 60 en route to Rome (Acts 27:2).
Assos.Assos is an acropolis sitting 774 feet above sea level, up from thevillage of Behramkale. It overlooks the Bay of Edremit and has asplendid view of Lesbos. Doric columns from the seventh-century BCtemple of Athena are prominent at the site. According to Acts20:13–14, on his return from his third missionary journey, Paulwent overland from Troas to Assos, and there he joined his travelingcompanions on their ship. From here on the way to Miletus, they madeseveral nearby island stops off the coast of Asia Minor: Mitylene onLesbos, Chios, and Samos (20:14–16).
Miletus.Located about twenty miles south of Ephesus, at the point where theMeander River met the Gulf of Latmus (now silted over), was theimportant southwestern seaport of Miletus. The city was significantin the NT era for its four harbors. A center for commerce,scholarship, geometry, and science, it was also the prototype forprinciples of city planning later applied throughout the RomanEmpire. On his third missionary journey, Paul’s farewell to theEphesian elders took place here (Acts 20:15–38). Later he leftthe ill Trophimus in Miletus (2 Tim. 4:20).
SouthwesternPorts
Patara.Sitting on the Mediterranean coast at the mouth of the Xanthus River,about forty miles west of present-day Demre, Patara was a flourishingharbor and commercial center in antiquity. Paul changed ships here ashe returned to Jerusalem from his third missionary journey, afterisland stops in Kos and Rhodes (Acts 21:1–2).
Myra.Myra is a coastal ruin due south of present-day Demre. In the NT era,the seaport featured a Roman theater, Roman baths, and two rock-cutnecropolises. Here, Paul changed ships around AD 60 on his way toRome while in the custody of a centurion (Acts 27:5). Myra is perhapsbest known as the home of the fourth-century bishop St. Nicholas,who was from nearby Patara.
Cnidus.At the tip of the long, narrow Datca peninsula on the extremesouthwestern corner of Asia Minor lies Cnidus. Founded around 360 BC,the acropolis rises 1,000 feet above sea level. The port included twoharbors and four theaters but was most famous for its fourth-centuryBC statue of Aphrodite, carved by the Athenian sculptor Praxiteles.Around AD 60 the ship carrying Paul to Rome stopped here because ofslow winds and changed course (Acts 27:7).
SevenChurches of Revelation; Lycus Valley
Theseven churches of Rev. 1–3 lay along a north-south ellipticalroute in western Asia Minor. Laodicea, the seventh, forms a tightgeographic triangle with Hierapolis and Colossae in the Lycus Valley.
Ephesus.Known today as Selçuk, ancient Ephesus is located on theAegean coast of Asia Minor at the mouth of the Cayster River. It wasfounded in the eleventh century BC by the Ionians and later ruledsuccessively by the Athenians, Spartans, Persians, and Greeks. Romangovernance began in 190 BC. Later, Ephesus became the capital of theprovince of Asia, as well as its most important commercial center.During the NT era, the Artemision (see Artemis) was an importantpilgrimage site.
Paulstopped in Ephesus briefly on his second missionary journey, leavingPriscilla and Aquila. They later encountered and mentored Apollosthere (Acts 18:19–26). On his third journey, Paul remained inEphesus for three years, teaching, performing miracles, and healingthe sick (19:1–22) until the riot incited by Demetrius thesilversmith (20:1). He wrote 1 Corinthians in Ephesus (1 Cor.16:8) and later wrote to the Ephesians from his Roman prison cell(Eph. 3:1) as well as to Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tim. 1:3).
InRev. 2:1–7 the Ephesian church is commended for itsperseverance but chastised for having lost its first love.
Smyrna.Smyrna (modern İzmir) is located about thirty-five miles northalong the coast from Ephesus. In 195 BC it became the first city inAsia Minor to erect a temple for the imperial cult, and by the nextcentury it was known as “the ornament of Asia.” In itsletter, which mentions no negatives, the church is encouraged to befaithful in its suffering (Rev. 2:8–11).
Pergamum.About seventy miles north of Smyrna is Pergamum (modern Bergama). Thedazzling acropolis sits one thousand feet high and about sixteenmiles inland from the Aegean. The Attalids, who ruled 263–133BC, allied Pergamum with Rome and built it into a major religious andintellectual center, constructing the great altar to Zeus Soter, thetemple to Athena Nicephorus, and the large complex dedicated toAsclepius Soter. They also established a ruler cult and built alibrary containing two hundred thousand volumes, which at its peakwas second only to the library at Alexandria.
Theletter to the church (Rev. 2:12–17) references Satan’sthrone, which many believe to be a reference to the altar to Zeus.The church is commended for its faithfulness and yet is admonishedfor tolerating those advocating pagan practices within the community.
Thyatira.Thyatira (now called Akhisar) is about thirty-five miles southeast ofPergamum. It was mainly noted as having a significant concentrationof trade guilds, especially those connected with textiles. Lydia,Paul’s disciple and host in Philippi, was a dealer in purplecloth from Thyatira (Acts 16:14). The church is commended for itsgood deeds but criticized for tolerating the false teacher Jezebel(Rev. 2:18–29).
Sardis.Forty-five miles east of Smyrna, on the banks of the Pactolus, isSardis, where Croesus, the sixth-century BC Lydian king, was said tohave panned for gold. He also built an impressive Ionic temple toArtemis here. Archaeological evidence points to the presence of asignificant Jewish community in Sardis, about which the NT is silent.
Theletter to Sardis is a stern warning to wake up, highlighting thechurch’s incomplete deeds and impurity (Rev. 3:1–6).
Philadelphia.Philadelphia (modern Alaşehir) is twenty-six miles southwest ofSardis on the Cogamis River. The city was noted for its wineproduction, and it was nicknamed “Little Athens” duringthe Roman era. Its letter is thoroughly positive; the church iscommended for its deeds and faithfulness (Rev. 3:7–13).
Laodicea.Laodicea is located about a hundred miles east of Ephesus, in avalley where the Lycus River joins the Meander; Hierapolis is just tothe north, and Colossae just to the east. Laodicea was founded in thethird century BC by the Seleucid king Antiochus II, who named itafter his wife. Cicero served as proconsul there in 51 BC.
Laodiceawas a prosperous city, a center for banking, eye salve (“Phrygianpowder”), and wool production. Its water was supplied viaaqueducts from Hierapolis’s hot springs, but it arrivedlukewarm and heavy with mineral impurities—no match for eitherits hot source or Colossae’s cold springs. The Laodicean letteremploys all of this background in its harsh message to the church,which it describes as tepid, poor, blind, and naked (Rev. 3:14–22).
Hierapolis.Eight miles to the north of Laodicea, Hierapolis sits atop dramaticwhite cliffs created by its hot springs (Col. 4:13). The city washome to the reputed entrance to the underworld, the Plutonium, andhad an enormous necropolis.
Colossae.Colossae, ten miles east of Laodicea, was a center for dyed red wool.Although wealthy in the late fourth century BC, it was later eclipsedby Laodicea.
Thechurches in Laodicea, Hierapolis, and Colossae (the oldest of thethree cities) were begun by Epaphras and shared letters, includingPaul’s letter to the Colossians (Col. 4:13–16). The slaveOnesimus carried it, along with the Letter to Philemon, to Colossae,where Philemon hosted the house church (Col. 4:9; Philem. 10–12).
Colossians is a letter sent by Paul to a church in Colossaewhen he was in prison. The letter was Paul’s first directcontact with the church, which may have been started by one of hismissionary associates, Epaphras (Col. 1:7). Epaphras was fromColossae (4:12), a city of Asia Minor located in the Lycus Valley,known for its fertile soil and green pastures. Some commentatorssuggest that Epaphras also started churches in Hierapolis andLaodicea (4:13), neighboring cities in the valley that were situatedaround the Lycus River about ten miles apart. Colossae was a freecity located on the main Roman road that ran from Ephesus and Sardistoward the east, and it was populated by native Phrygians, as well asGreeks, Romans, and Jews. More than likely, the church was foundedduring Paul’s extended ministry in Ephesus, where persons fromthe region heard Paul’s gospel and from where Paul sentmissionary associates such as Epaphras into the surrounding cities(Acts 19). Tychicus, the letter carrier (Col. 4:7–8), was alsoone of Paul’s associates from the same region; he decided toaccompany Paul to Macedonia after the team left Ephesus (Acts 20:4).
Theclose association of these churches in Asia Minor and the time framewhen the letters were written may explain why Paul’s letter tothe Colossians is so similar in content to his letter to theEphesians. Paul was in prison (probably in Rome) when he sent both ofthese letters (Eph. 3:1; Col. 4:10, 18). The instructions regardingTychicus, the carrier for both letters, are identical, nearlyverbatim (Eph. 6:21–22; Col. 4:7–8). The letters sharethe same outline, following some of the same themes, especiallytoward the end, where Paul gives instructions regarding thehousehold. An affinity also exists between Colossians and Philemon, aletter sent to the patron of one of the house churches in Colossae.Most of the names mentioned by Paul appear in both letters: Timothy,Onesimus, Archippus, Epaphras, Mark, Aristarchus, Demas, and Luke(Col. 1:1; 4:9–17; Philem. 1, 10, 23–24). Paul was alsoin prison, along with Epaphras, at the time he sent his letter toPhilemon. All of this indicates that these letters were written aboutthe same time, from the same place, to the same region. Why did Paulsend three letters to the same region, especially since letterproduction was so expensive? Why not send one letter to the entireregion (like Galatians), to be read by all the house churches?Obviously, the problems of each church were so different that theyrequired a separate authoritative word from their apostle.
QuestionablePractices in Colossae
TheColossians were doing several things that Paul found troublesome, aswe learn from Col. 2. They were judging each other for not keepingcertain dietary regulations and holy days (2:16). Some were claimingsuperiority through personal worship experiences that involvedvisions of angels (2:18). Some subscribed to strict discipline of thehuman body, punishing themselves through various acts ofself-abasem*nt in order to curb fleshly appetites (2:23) and enhancetheir worship experiences (2:18). It seems that many of them weretrying to live by an expanded version of the divine command given inthe story of Adam, Eve, and the forbidden fruit: “Do nothandle! Do not taste! Do not touch!” (2:21). Paul recognizedthat all these claims and rules had the “appearance of wisdom”but in reality were nothing more than traditions based on“self-imposed” religion, and that such ascetic practiceswere useless in denying fleshly appetites (2:22–23). Where didthe Colossians get all these strange ideas that led to such bizarrebehavior?
Pauldescribed the false teaching as an imprisoning “through hollowand deceptive philosophy, which depends on human tradition and theelemental spiritual forces” in opposition to the teachings ofChrist (2:8). Because the Colossian church was made up primarily ofGentile converts (1:27), many interpreters argue that the problemsresulted from the meshing of the gospel with local, pagan ways. ThePhrygians were known for their fascination with magical rituals, theability to manipulate the powers (earth, wind, fire, spirits, angels,often referred to as “elementary principles of the world”)for human purposes. Paul’s description of the false teaching asa “hollow and deceptive philosophy” based on the “humantradition” may also reveal the influence of Greek ideas andRoman ways in the church. The Greeks operated with a dualisticworldview of spirit versus flesh, leading some philosophers to arguethat punishing the body ensured purity of the soul. Furthermore, theRomans believed that the gods had given them power to rule the world,bringing fertility to the lands of conquered peoples. WorshipingCaesar brought economic rewards to devoted subjects of the empire. Inother words, all this talk in the Colossian letter about power andsovereignty, philosophy and self-discipline was Paul’s way ofdealing directly with the root of the problem: the syncretism ofpagan ways and the gospel according to Paul.
Someinterpreters believe that all these peculiar teachings derive notfrom pagan religions but rather from Judaism. After all, Paul’sreferences to observing the Sabbath, keeping commandments, andangelic worship point toward a Jewish context. Paul also affirmedthat his Gentile converts were “circumcised with a circumcisionnot performed by human hands” (2:11), perhaps revealing hisconcern that Jewish ways were creeping into his Gentile church. Heeven put the church on notice, identifying those among “thecircumcision” (Jews) who were trustworthy ministers of thegospel (he mentions only three, Barnabas, John Mark, and Jesus calledJustus [4:10–11]). The implication, of course, was to ignorethe rest of “the circumcision.” But if the troublemakersin Colossae were Jewish opponents of Paul, how does one explain allthe mystical and ascetic elements of this false teaching? Some arguethat the expression “worship of angels” was not anidolatrous practice of venerating angelic beings. Instead, the phraseshould be translated “angelic worship,” implying thatsome Colossians claimed to have been transported to heaven and joinedthe angels in worship of God. This may have been similar to theexperiences of an obscure form of Judaism: Jewish mystics who claimedto preserve esoteric revelations through out-of-body experiences ofheavenly visions and auditions (see Paul’s description in2 Cor. 12:1–7). Furthermore, the strict dietary code andsexual ethic of Jewish law were often interpreted by first-centurypagans as promoting an ascetic lifestyle. In other words, Paul wascountering a more cryptic branch of Judaism that flourished in aregion known for its affinity for the mysterious.
Outlineand Content
I.Introduction (1:1–14)
A.Greeting (1:1–2)
B.Thanksgiving (1:3–8)
C.Prayer (1:9–14)
II.The Person and Work of Christ (1:15–23)
III.Paul’s Role in Christ’s Mission to the Gentiles(1:24–2:5)
IV.False Teaching versus the Work of Christ (2:6–23)
V.Instructions on Life in Christ
A.In the church (3:1–17)
B.In the home (3:18–4:1)
VI.Generic Exhortations (4:2–6)
VII.Specific Instructions (4:7–9)
VIII.Final Greetings (4:10–17)
IX.Paul’s Signature (4:18)
Whateverthe source of the false teaching referred to in Colossians, Paulattempts to correct the misbehavior of his Gentile converts bybuilding an argument that the work of Christ is all-sufficient. Paulbegins the letter by describing the person and work of Christ incosmic terms (1:15–23). Next he recounts his role in themission of Christ to bring the riches of the kingdom to Gentiles(1:24–2:5). After reminding the Colossians of their receptionof the gospel, Paul juxtaposes the deceptive practices of the falseteaching with the evidence of the work of Christ in them (2:6–23).Then he gives a number of instructions on what life in Christ issupposed to look like: in the church (3:1–17) and in the home(3:18–4:1). He concludes the letter with generic exhortations(4:2–6), specific instructions (4:7–9), and greetings(4:10–17). Finally, Paul signs the letter, obviously written bya secretary, with the simple request: “Remember my chains”(4:18)—a curious signature that makes the argument of hisletter even more appealing.
ThePower and Peace of Christ’s Kingdom
Itis ironic that Paul chose to describe the work of Christ in suchgrandiose terms, picturing him as a mighty ruler over all creation,even while the apostle was in prison—an undeniable sign ofRoman sovereignty. In Col. 1, in some of the loftiest language Paulever used to describe Christ’s kingdom authority, the apostlereminds his converts that the Lord is “the image of theinvisible God, the firstborn over all creation” (v. 15),an obvious reference to Christ’s deity. Then Paul piles on theattributes, presenting Christ as the creator of all things, evenangelic creatures (v. 16), the sustainer of all things (v. 17),the head of the church, the eternal one, the guarantor of theresurrection (v. 18), the fullness of God (v. 19), thereconciler of all things—the one who made peace with theenemies of God through his blood on the cross (vv. 20–22).Despite Paul’s circ*mstances and what Rome may claim, theapostle holds fast to the irrepressible sovereignty of Christ’skingdom, displayed by Paul’s perseverance in the midst ofsuffering and the full assurance that every Colossian believer is“fully mature in Christ” (vv. 22–29). Indeed, allthe treasures of Christ’s kingdom—love, knowledge,wisdom, discipline—are to be found in the life of his converts(2:1–5), unless someone “deludes” them intothinking otherwise.
Paul’srhetorical strategy of extolling the power of Christ’s kingdommakes perfect sense in light of the false teaching that was plaguingthe Colossian church. Apparently, the Colossians were persuaded tofeel inadequate about their faith, vulnerable to the imposition oflegalistic standards that ensured victory over fleshly indulgences.To counter his opponents, Paul unpacks the significance of theincarnation and the cross (2:9–15). Because Christ was God inflesh (in whom “all the fullness of the Deity lives in bodilyform” [v. 9]), his death on the cross was a cosmic eventthat defeated all the powers that oppose God. Using military imagery,Paul argues that Christ canceled every debt against humanity when henailed all “decrees” (even Caesar’s) to the cross.In that singular act of sacrifice, Christ disarmed the foes of God,humiliating them publicly by making a spectacle of them, triumphingover all powers (v. 15)—something that Caesar loved to doafter successful military campaigns. Therefore, if Christ’svictory over all powers has been secured through his death, and sincehe rules as the firstborn of the dead (resurrection) over allcreation, and since the Colossians are “fully mature in Christ”(1:28) because of their faith in him, then no pretense ofself-abasem*nt or angelic visions can diminish what Christ has doneand will continue to do in the lives of Paul’s converts inColossae. Christ is all they needed to overcome the powers.
InCol. 3, Paul tells how the Colossians draw upon the power of Christwhen they “set [their] minds on things above, not on earthlythings” (v. 2). The things on the earth are “sexualimmorality, impurity, lust, evil desires and greed” (v. 5).Paul believes that his converts died with Christ (“hidden withChrist in God” [v. 3]) and therefore had set aside allthese idolatrous practices when they put on the “new self,”being conformed to the image of Christ (vv. 8–10). This renewalwill be found in all believers, regardless of ethnicity (v. 11),and will result in peace for all. Indeed, Paul sees the “peaceof Christ” as the undeniable evidence of his reign exhibited inthe hearts of those who believe (vv. 12–15). And what wouldthat peace look like? Believers will be patient, forgiving oneanother with hearts full of compassion, kindness, humility,gentleness, and love resulting in unity (vv. 12–14). Theirworship of God will be characterized by songs of thankfulness andadmonition, receiving the word with wisdom (v. 16). In theirhomes husbands, wives, and children will model deference and love,and masters and slaves will seek justice and fairness, as if theywere serving Christ (3:18–4:1). The Colossians will be devotedto prayer, will treat outsiders fairly, and will be known for alwaysspeaking graceful words (4:2–6). In other words, where Caesar’sempire has promoted Roman peace by enforcing Roman law in provinces,cities, and households, Paul believes that the peace of Christ willrule the hearts of his subjects, establishing a kingdom of love andunity, in word and deed, in the home as well as the church. So, inhis final greetings, Paul talks about faithful slaves and belovedsiblings as sources of encouragement in the ever-expanding work ofthe kingdom of God (4:7–17), making his simple request,“Remember my chains” (4:18), sound more like an act ofdefiance than a pitiful plea.
Colossians is a letter sent by Paul to a church in Colossaewhen he was in prison. The letter was Paul’s first directcontact with the church, which may have been started by one of hismissionary associates, Epaphras (Col. 1:7). Epaphras was fromColossae (4:12), a city of Asia Minor located in the Lycus Valley,known for its fertile soil and green pastures. Some commentatorssuggest that Epaphras also started churches in Hierapolis andLaodicea (4:13), neighboring cities in the valley that were situatedaround the Lycus River about ten miles apart. Colossae was a freecity located on the main Roman road that ran from Ephesus and Sardistoward the east, and it was populated by native Phrygians, as well asGreeks, Romans, and Jews. More than likely, the church was foundedduring Paul’s extended ministry in Ephesus, where persons fromthe region heard Paul’s gospel and from where Paul sentmissionary associates such as Epaphras into the surrounding cities(Acts 19). Tychicus, the letter carrier (Col. 4:7–8), was alsoone of Paul’s associates from the same region; he decided toaccompany Paul to Macedonia after the team left Ephesus (Acts 20:4).
Theclose association of these churches in Asia Minor and the time framewhen the letters were written may explain why Paul’s letter tothe Colossians is so similar in content to his letter to theEphesians. Paul was in prison (probably in Rome) when he sent both ofthese letters (Eph. 3:1; Col. 4:10, 18). The instructions regardingTychicus, the carrier for both letters, are identical, nearlyverbatim (Eph. 6:21–22; Col. 4:7–8). The letters sharethe same outline, following some of the same themes, especiallytoward the end, where Paul gives instructions regarding thehousehold. An affinity also exists between Colossians and Philemon, aletter sent to the patron of one of the house churches in Colossae.Most of the names mentioned by Paul appear in both letters: Timothy,Onesimus, Archippus, Epaphras, Mark, Aristarchus, Demas, and Luke(Col. 1:1; 4:9–17; Philem. 1, 10, 23–24). Paul was alsoin prison, along with Epaphras, at the time he sent his letter toPhilemon. All of this indicates that these letters were written aboutthe same time, from the same place, to the same region. Why did Paulsend three letters to the same region, especially since letterproduction was so expensive? Why not send one letter to the entireregion (like Galatians), to be read by all the house churches?Obviously, the problems of each church were so different that theyrequired a separate authoritative word from their apostle.
QuestionablePractices in Colossae
TheColossians were doing several things that Paul found troublesome, aswe learn from Col. 2. They were judging each other for not keepingcertain dietary regulations and holy days (2:16). Some were claimingsuperiority through personal worship experiences that involvedvisions of angels (2:18). Some subscribed to strict discipline of thehuman body, punishing themselves through various acts ofself-abasem*nt in order to curb fleshly appetites (2:23) and enhancetheir worship experiences (2:18). It seems that many of them weretrying to live by an expanded version of the divine command given inthe story of Adam, Eve, and the forbidden fruit: “Do nothandle! Do not taste! Do not touch!” (2:21). Paul recognizedthat all these claims and rules had the “appearance of wisdom”but in reality were nothing more than traditions based on“self-imposed” religion, and that such ascetic practiceswere useless in denying fleshly appetites (2:22–23). Where didthe Colossians get all these strange ideas that led to such bizarrebehavior?
Pauldescribed the false teaching as an imprisoning “through hollowand deceptive philosophy, which depends on human tradition and theelemental spiritual forces” in opposition to the teachings ofChrist (2:8). Because the Colossian church was made up primarily ofGentile converts (1:27), many interpreters argue that the problemsresulted from the meshing of the gospel with local, pagan ways. ThePhrygians were known for their fascination with magical rituals, theability to manipulate the powers (earth, wind, fire, spirits, angels,often referred to as “elementary principles of the world”)for human purposes. Paul’s description of the false teaching asa “hollow and deceptive philosophy” based on the “humantradition” may also reveal the influence of Greek ideas andRoman ways in the church. The Greeks operated with a dualisticworldview of spirit versus flesh, leading some philosophers to arguethat punishing the body ensured purity of the soul. Furthermore, theRomans believed that the gods had given them power to rule the world,bringing fertility to the lands of conquered peoples. WorshipingCaesar brought economic rewards to devoted subjects of the empire. Inother words, all this talk in the Colossian letter about power andsovereignty, philosophy and self-discipline was Paul’s way ofdealing directly with the root of the problem: the syncretism ofpagan ways and the gospel according to Paul.
Someinterpreters believe that all these peculiar teachings derive notfrom pagan religions but rather from Judaism. After all, Paul’sreferences to observing the Sabbath, keeping commandments, andangelic worship point toward a Jewish context. Paul also affirmedthat his Gentile converts were “circumcised with a circumcisionnot performed by human hands” (2:11), perhaps revealing hisconcern that Jewish ways were creeping into his Gentile church. Heeven put the church on notice, identifying those among “thecircumcision” (Jews) who were trustworthy ministers of thegospel (he mentions only three, Barnabas, John Mark, and Jesus calledJustus [4:10–11]). The implication, of course, was to ignorethe rest of “the circumcision.” But if the troublemakersin Colossae were Jewish opponents of Paul, how does one explain allthe mystical and ascetic elements of this false teaching? Some arguethat the expression “worship of angels” was not anidolatrous practice of venerating angelic beings. Instead, the phraseshould be translated “angelic worship,” implying thatsome Colossians claimed to have been transported to heaven and joinedthe angels in worship of God. This may have been similar to theexperiences of an obscure form of Judaism: Jewish mystics who claimedto preserve esoteric revelations through out-of-body experiences ofheavenly visions and auditions (see Paul’s description in2 Cor. 12:1–7). Furthermore, the strict dietary code andsexual ethic of Jewish law were often interpreted by first-centurypagans as promoting an ascetic lifestyle. In other words, Paul wascountering a more cryptic branch of Judaism that flourished in aregion known for its affinity for the mysterious.
Outlineand Content
I.Introduction (1:1–14)
A.Greeting (1:1–2)
B.Thanksgiving (1:3–8)
C.Prayer (1:9–14)
II.The Person and Work of Christ (1:15–23)
III.Paul’s Role in Christ’s Mission to the Gentiles(1:24–2:5)
IV.False Teaching versus the Work of Christ (2:6–23)
V.Instructions on Life in Christ
A.In the church (3:1–17)
B.In the home (3:18–4:1)
VI.Generic Exhortations (4:2–6)
VII.Specific Instructions (4:7–9)
VIII.Final Greetings (4:10–17)
IX.Paul’s Signature (4:18)
Whateverthe source of the false teaching referred to in Colossians, Paulattempts to correct the misbehavior of his Gentile converts bybuilding an argument that the work of Christ is all-sufficient. Paulbegins the letter by describing the person and work of Christ incosmic terms (1:15–23). Next he recounts his role in themission of Christ to bring the riches of the kingdom to Gentiles(1:24–2:5). After reminding the Colossians of their receptionof the gospel, Paul juxtaposes the deceptive practices of the falseteaching with the evidence of the work of Christ in them (2:6–23).Then he gives a number of instructions on what life in Christ issupposed to look like: in the church (3:1–17) and in the home(3:18–4:1). He concludes the letter with generic exhortations(4:2–6), specific instructions (4:7–9), and greetings(4:10–17). Finally, Paul signs the letter, obviously written bya secretary, with the simple request: “Remember my chains”(4:18)—a curious signature that makes the argument of hisletter even more appealing.
ThePower and Peace of Christ’s Kingdom
Itis ironic that Paul chose to describe the work of Christ in suchgrandiose terms, picturing him as a mighty ruler over all creation,even while the apostle was in prison—an undeniable sign ofRoman sovereignty. In Col. 1, in some of the loftiest language Paulever used to describe Christ’s kingdom authority, the apostlereminds his converts that the Lord is “the image of theinvisible God, the firstborn over all creation” (v. 15),an obvious reference to Christ’s deity. Then Paul piles on theattributes, presenting Christ as the creator of all things, evenangelic creatures (v. 16), the sustainer of all things (v. 17),the head of the church, the eternal one, the guarantor of theresurrection (v. 18), the fullness of God (v. 19), thereconciler of all things—the one who made peace with theenemies of God through his blood on the cross (vv. 20–22).Despite Paul’s circ*mstances and what Rome may claim, theapostle holds fast to the irrepressible sovereignty of Christ’skingdom, displayed by Paul’s perseverance in the midst ofsuffering and the full assurance that every Colossian believer is“fully mature in Christ” (vv. 22–29). Indeed, allthe treasures of Christ’s kingdom—love, knowledge,wisdom, discipline—are to be found in the life of his converts(2:1–5), unless someone “deludes” them intothinking otherwise.
Paul’srhetorical strategy of extolling the power of Christ’s kingdommakes perfect sense in light of the false teaching that was plaguingthe Colossian church. Apparently, the Colossians were persuaded tofeel inadequate about their faith, vulnerable to the imposition oflegalistic standards that ensured victory over fleshly indulgences.To counter his opponents, Paul unpacks the significance of theincarnation and the cross (2:9–15). Because Christ was God inflesh (in whom “all the fullness of the Deity lives in bodilyform” [v. 9]), his death on the cross was a cosmic eventthat defeated all the powers that oppose God. Using military imagery,Paul argues that Christ canceled every debt against humanity when henailed all “decrees” (even Caesar’s) to the cross.In that singular act of sacrifice, Christ disarmed the foes of God,humiliating them publicly by making a spectacle of them, triumphingover all powers (v. 15)—something that Caesar loved to doafter successful military campaigns. Therefore, if Christ’svictory over all powers has been secured through his death, and sincehe rules as the firstborn of the dead (resurrection) over allcreation, and since the Colossians are “fully mature in Christ”(1:28) because of their faith in him, then no pretense ofself-abasem*nt or angelic visions can diminish what Christ has doneand will continue to do in the lives of Paul’s converts inColossae. Christ is all they needed to overcome the powers.
InCol. 3, Paul tells how the Colossians draw upon the power of Christwhen they “set [their] minds on things above, not on earthlythings” (v. 2). The things on the earth are “sexualimmorality, impurity, lust, evil desires and greed” (v. 5).Paul believes that his converts died with Christ (“hidden withChrist in God” [v. 3]) and therefore had set aside allthese idolatrous practices when they put on the “new self,”being conformed to the image of Christ (vv. 8–10). This renewalwill be found in all believers, regardless of ethnicity (v. 11),and will result in peace for all. Indeed, Paul sees the “peaceof Christ” as the undeniable evidence of his reign exhibited inthe hearts of those who believe (vv. 12–15). And what wouldthat peace look like? Believers will be patient, forgiving oneanother with hearts full of compassion, kindness, humility,gentleness, and love resulting in unity (vv. 12–14). Theirworship of God will be characterized by songs of thankfulness andadmonition, receiving the word with wisdom (v. 16). In theirhomes husbands, wives, and children will model deference and love,and masters and slaves will seek justice and fairness, as if theywere serving Christ (3:18–4:1). The Colossians will be devotedto prayer, will treat outsiders fairly, and will be known for alwaysspeaking graceful words (4:2–6). In other words, where Caesar’sempire has promoted Roman peace by enforcing Roman law in provinces,cities, and households, Paul believes that the peace of Christ willrule the hearts of his subjects, establishing a kingdom of love andunity, in word and deed, in the home as well as the church. So, inhis final greetings, Paul talks about faithful slaves and belovedsiblings as sources of encouragement in the ever-expanding work ofthe kingdom of God (4:7–17), making his simple request,“Remember my chains” (4:18), sound more like an act ofdefiance than a pitiful plea.
Evangelism is the proclamation of the “evangel”(Gk. euangelion), the good news, of Jesus Christ. The content of theevangel includes Jesus’ birth, which was announced as good newsto Zechariah by the angel Gabriel (Luke 1:19) and by the angels tothe shepherds (Luke 2:10). The good news speaks of the reality ofJesus’ resurrection (Acts 17:18), is described as a message ofgrace (Acts 20:24) and reconciliation to God through the sacrificedbody of Christ (Col. 1:22–23), and includes the expectation ofa day of divine judgment (Rom. 2:16). Paul preached the gospel (fromOld English gōdspel, “good news”) message, which heclaimed had its origin with God, not humans (Gal. 1:11–12). Hesummarizes this message in 1Cor. 15:3b–5: “thatChrist died for our sins according to the Scriptures, that he wasburied, that he was raised on the third day according to theScriptures, and that he appeared to Cephas, and then to the Twelve.”The introduction to the Gospel of Mark (1:1) may indicate that thiswritten gospel could serve evangelistic purposes.
Evangelisticefforts in the New Testament.Numerous figures throughout the NT participated in evangelisticendeavors. John the Baptist’s preaching about the comingMessiah is described as evangelism (Luke 3:18). Evangelism was acharacteristic activity of Jesus’ own ministry (Matt. 4:23;9:35; Mark 1:14; Luke 20:1), which focused on proclaiming the adventof the kingdom of God (Luke 4:43; 8:1) and at times was targetedtoward the poor (Matt. 11:5; Luke 4:18; 7:22). Jesus commanded thosewho follow him to engage in evangelism. He sent out the twelveapostles for evangelistic purposes (Luke 9:2), and he issued theGreat Commission to this end (Matt. 28:18–20).
Themissionary enterprise recorded in Acts demonstrates the efforts ofthe earliest Christians to spread the gospel. The apostles inJerusalem (Acts 5:42) proclaimed the gospel in spite of greatopposition and persecution, and believers who were scattered outsideJerusalem because of persecution spread the gospel in new locales(8:4). Philip evangelized Samaritans and an Ethiopian (8:12, 35). Theministry of Paul and Barnabas is characterized as preaching the goodnews (14:7, 15, 21; 15:35; 16:10; 17:18). Philip, one of the sevenchosen to distribute food (6:5), was given the name “theEvangelist” (21:8). Timothy, additionally, is said to be Paul’sfellow worker in evangelism (1Thess. 3:2; cf. 2Tim. 4:5).
Evangelismwas a central part of Paul’s ministry (Rom. 1:9; 1Cor.1:17; 15:1–2; Eph. 6:19; 1Thess. 2:2, 9). He indicated anexplicit interest in sharing the gospel with Gentiles (Rom. 15:16;Gal. 1:16; 2:7; Eph. 3:8) and with those who had never heard it (Rom.15:20; 2 Cor. 10:16), and he expressed a desire to preach the gospelat Rome (Rom. 1:15). Paul wrote of the necessity of evangelism inorder for people to be saved (Rom. 10:15), and he preached the gospelmessage free of charge (1Cor. 9:16, 18; 2Cor. 11:7). Helisted the role of the evangelist in the church along with apostles,prophets, pastors, and teachers (Eph. 4:11).
Goaland methods of evangelism.Evangelism’s goal is to spread the gospel across ethnic andreligious boundaries until it reaches all nations (Mark 13:10; Col.1:23). To this end, Acts details an intentional effort by theearliest Christians to share the gospel with those who came from bothJewish and non-Jewish backgrounds. Acts 8:25 records Peter and John’sevangelistic efforts in Samaritan villages, and Acts 15:7 identifiesPeter as an evangelist to Gentiles. An outreach specifically toGentiles is chronicled in Acts 11:20, and Paul’s intentionalprogram of traveling from city to city further contributes to thisgoal (Rom. 15:19).
Theevangelists recorded in the NT demonstrate a range of methods andapproaches to sharing the good news. They often began with a point ofcontact from the religious worldview of their audience. For instance,Philip used Scripture as a starting point in speaking with anindividual who was familiar with some portion of it (Acts 8:35).Similarly, when addressing Jews, Paul preached Jesus as thefulfillment of various OT Scriptures (Acts 13:32–41), but whenpreaching the gospel to the Greeks in Athens, he acknowledged theirreligiosity and their previous worship of one called “anunknown God” (17:22–23). Evangelists sought opportunitiesto gain an audience, and Paul even took advantage of an illness tostay with the Galatians and share the gospel with them (Gal. 4:13).Finally, much of the evangelistic work in the early church wascoupled with miraculous signs and wonders, which served toauthenticate the message being proclaimed (Rom. 15:19; 1Thess.1:5).
The giving of gifts in the Bible has several nuances. It can refer to a goodwill gift or a peace offering given to a friend or relative (Prov. 18:16; 21:14). Thus, when Jacob seeks to make peace with his brother Esau, he sends gifts to him before they meet (Gen. 32:13; 33:10). Similarly, when Abigail intercedes with David on behalf of Nabal, she gives David a gift (1Sam. 25:27).
Ezekiel 46:17 illustrates that some gifts are regulated if they came from an inheritance. There are several references in the NT to the gifts of one local church to another (Acts 11:30; 1Cor. 16:3; 2Cor. 8:12, 20; 9:5; Phil. 4:17). The giving of these gifts has a positive effect for both those in need and those who give the gift.
Gifts are a traditional part of bridal arrangements in the Bible. Thus, Shechem requests to know the bride-price and gift when he asks for Dinah as his wife (Gen. 34:11–12). Likewise, Pharaoh gives a captured city as a dowry for his daughter’s marriage to Solomon (1Kings 9:16).
Gifts are integral in honoring another in hospitality and in approaching someone about a service. Israel instructs his sons to take gifts to Pharaoh when they go to purchase food (Gen. 43:11). It is customary to bring a gift to a man of God or prophet when asking for advice or prophetic insight (1Sam. 9:7; 1Kings 13:7; 2Kings 5:15; 8:8–9). People bring Solomon gifts when they seek an audience with him (1Kings 10:25). Additionally, gifts are part of the process of establishing a treaty (1Kings 15:19; 2Kings 16:8; 20:12).
Of course, gifts can be used for ignoble purposes as well. David sends a gift to Uriah in an effort to cover up his own sin (2Sam. 11:8).
Sacrifices of every type are conceived of as a gift to the deity with the intent of seeking favor or making restitution for sin (Lev. 22:18; Num. 31:52). Even mandatory offerings and dedicated land are considered gifts under the notion that God, as the Creator, owns all (Ezek. 45:16; 48:12, 20). This idea of giving a gift to God demonstrates the cost involved in approaching the deity. Interestingly, the priests and Levites who are associated with the sacrifices are described as a gift from God to the rest of the people (Num. 18:6–7).
The intentions behind the gift are important to God. Jesus states that one cannot be giving gifts to God and simultaneously holding on to contention with another in the community of faith (Matt. 5:23–24). Jesus commands that thankfulness to God be followed with the prescribed sacrifice (Matt. 8:4). Yet, an unwillingness to help others should not be hidden behind an ostentatious dedication to giving to God (Matt. 15:5; Mark 7:11). Likewise, Jesus warns against being overly legalistic about gifts and their benefit (Matt. 23:18–19).
On a fundamental level, gift giving has its origin in the gracious nature of God. God is the giver of all good gifts (James 1:17). He gives children to mothers (Gen. 30:20). A good life and reward for work are also gifts from God (Eccles. 3:13; 5:19). Jesus describes himself as a gift of God (John 4:10). Likewise, the Holy Spirit is God’s gift (Acts 1:4; 2:38; 11:17) and cannot be purchased with money (Acts 8:20). This gift of the Holy Spirit is given to Jew and Gentile alike (Acts 10:45).
Both grace and salvation are gifts from God (Rom. 5:15–17; 6:23; Eph. 2:8; 3:7; Heb. 6:4; 1Pet. 3:7). Finally, spiritual gifts are part of God’s good gifts (Rom. 1:11). These gifts are meant to help the church so that nothing needed for ministry is lacking in the body of Christ (Rom. 12:6; 1Cor. 1:7; 7:7; 1Tim. 4:14; 2Tim. 1:6; 1Pet. 4:10). Spiritual gifts are all governed by the greatest gift, that of love (1Cor. 13:2; 14:1).
The word “Gentiles” is often used to translatewords meaning “nations” or “peoples.” It hasa Latin etymology from gens, meaning “clan” or “family”and, eventually, “race” or “people.” TheGreek word genos (“race, kind”) has a close relationship.In the Bible it loosely refers to nations or peoples other thanIsrael. English Bibles often translate it as “nations,”“peoples,” or “races.”
OldTestament
Ingeneral, within the OT, Gentiles are not God’s people. Godchose Israel to be his people, not other nations (Deut. 7:6–8;10:15; 26:18–19). Israelite ancestry determines membership inthe covenant people. Some writings thus forbid Gentiles from becomingpart of God’s people (Ezra 9–10; Neh. 13).
TheOT more commonly envisions Gentiles experiencing covenant blessingthrough Israel if they functionally become Israelites by keeping thelaw, including the parts we understand as ceremonial-ritual law. Thelaw is that special life-giving and regulating aspect of the covenantthat God revealed to Israel, which defines Israel (Lev. 18:1–5;20:22–26; Deut. 4:1–8, 32–40; 6:24–25; 8:1–6;10:12–11:32; 30:11–20; Josh. 1:7–9; Neh. 9:29; Pss.119; 147:19–20; Ezek. 20:9–13, 21).
Suchlaw/Israel-centered conditions for Gentiles relate to a broader OTunderstanding: God will reach and restore the world through Israel,the locus of his saving activity. God will bless the nations in andthrough Abraham’s descendants, Israel (Gen. 12:1–3;17:4–6; 22:18; 26:4; 28:14). This covenant specificallyinvolves keeping the law (e.g., circumcision [Gen. 17:9–14]).Some passages depict this happening through the nations being subjectto Israel (Gen. 49:8–12; Num. 24:9, 17–19; Isa. 11:10–16;14:2; 54:3). In other passages the nations will be blessed byIsrael’s God as they come to Israel, bring back exiled Israel,serve Israel, present Israel with their own wealth, and/or fearIsrael’s God (Isa. 45:23; 49:22–23; 51:4–5; 55:5;60:3–16; 61:5–6; 66:12–13, 18–21; Mic.7:12–17; Zech. 2:11; 8:22–23). Other passages furtherelucidate the law-defined nature of such Gentile participation in theGod of Israel’s salvation (Exod. 12:48; Isa. 56:1–8; Jer.12:14–17; Zech. 14:16–21). The portrait of the nations“flowing” up the mountain of God associates Gentileparticipation in God’s salvation explicitly with the law (Isa.2:2–5; Mic. 4:1–5).
TheServant Songs in Isa. 40–55 also reflect thislaw/Israel-centered nature of salvation for the Gentiles. Theservant, explicitly identified as Israel (41:8, 9; 42:18–19;44:1–2, 21; 45:4; 48:20; 49:3; 54:17; see also 65:9; 66:14),serves as God’s instrument for reaching the nations (42:1, 6;49:6; 52:15). The OT usually condemns Gentiles who remain separatefrom Israel to some form of judgment, especially Gentiles who haveharmed Israel.
SecondTemple Judaism and Early Christianity
SecondTemple Jewish sources exhibit diverse views about Gentiles, theirnature, their possible relation to God, and their fate at the end.Many reflect something resembling the OT views. Israel as God’speople defined by the law, variously understood and contested amongSecond Temple sources, generally continues to be the locus of God’sultimate blessing activities.
SituatingJesus and early Christianity within this matrix of Gentilesensitivities is illuminating. As the Jesus movement spread acrossthe Mediterranean, proclaiming the ultimate salvation of the God ofIsrael in and through Jesus the Messiah, questions about how Gentilesexperience this salvation of the Jewish God had paramount importance.
SomeChristians, in line with traditional readings of the OT, thought thatGentiles must keep the law, becoming Jews to experience the God ofIsrael’s salvation in Jesus (Acts 11:1–3; 15:1, 5; Paul’sopponents in Galatia). Gentiles, after all, were separated from Godand his salvation promises to Israel (Rom. 9:4–5; Eph. 2:11–13;1Pet. 2:10). They stood under God’s condemnation,especially because they were controlled by their passions and sin,lacking self-mastery and the ability to live rightly (Rom. 1:18–32;Eph. 4:17–19; 1Thess. 4:5; 1Pet. 1:14, 18).
However,various NT authors, such as Paul, contend that Gentiles need not keepthe law, functionally becoming Jews, in order to participate in God’sultimate salvation in Jesus. Christ, the climax of Israel itself, hasreplaced the law’s centrality and ultimacy with himself and hisdeath and resurrection (Rom. 10:4). Through being united to Christ bythe Spirit, Gentiles are, apart from the law, grafted into true,redefined Israel and become Abraham’s descendants, inheritingGod’s promised salvation for Israel (Rom. 3:21–4:25;8:1–17; 9:30–10:17; 11:13–32; Gal. 2:11–4:7;Eph. 2:11–22; 3:4–6). In Christ, by the Spirit, Gentilesattain self-mastery over their passions and sin and thus live rightlybefore God, inheriting the kingdom of God in Christ (Rom. 6:1–8:30;1Cor. 6:9–11; Gal. 5:16–26; 1Thess. 4:3–8).Various NT writings thus reconfigure the situation of Gentiles withrespect to Israel’s God because of what God did in Christ.
Debatesabout Gentiles, the law, salvation, and what Christ means for theseissues persisted after Paul. Early Christians lacked an unequivocalsaying from Jesus on the matter, and not all accepted Paul and someother NT writings.
Imprisonmentof Criminals
Incomparing modern society to that of biblical times, it is importantto acknowledge what is distinctive about prisons in many modernsocieties. Prisons serve multiple functions, including imposingincarceration as punishment for crimes committed, segregatingdangerous criminals from the larger population, deterring crime byimposing a negative incentive, and rehabilitating offenders so thatthey can eventually return to society. In many cases where modern lawimposes incarceration as the penalty for crime, ancient and biblicallaw imposed economic penalties (such as fines), corporal punishment(beatings), and capital punishment (death). In addition, many of thebiblical references to prisons and prisoners involve what in modernsociety would be considered political rather than criminalincarceration.
Thestory of Joseph prominently features an Egyptian prison. Joseph wasfalsely put in prison for the crime of molesting his master’swife (Gen. 39:19–20), while his companions were imprisoned forthe otherwise unspecified crime of causing offense to the king(40:1). As this story illustrates, the sentences were not of apredetermined duration, and release depended on the goodwill of theking (Gen. 40:13), a situation in which Paul also found himselfhundreds of years later during Roman times (Acts 24:27). When Josephimprisoned his brothers, it was on a presumption of guilt for thecrime of espionage (Gen. 42:16). In Roman times, in contrast, certainprisoners had a right to be put on trial eventually, if not quickly(Acts 25:27; see also 16:37). Imprisonment could also be imposed forfailure to pay a debt (Matt. 18:30). Joseph kept Simeon in prison asa guarantee that his brothers would fulfill a prior agreement (Gen.42:19, 24). In addition to specialized dungeons, prisoners could alsobe confined in houses (Jer. 37:15; Acts 28:16) and pits (Zech. 9:11).
PoliticalImprisonment
Ina number of biblical stories individuals are imprisoned for what wewould today describe as political or ideological reasons. Samson wasimprisoned by the Philistines in retaliation for the havoc that hehad wreaked in their land and probably to prevent further incidents(Judg. 16:21). While in prison, Samson was enslaved. SeveralIsraelite and Judean kings were imprisoned by their Mesopotamianoverlords for offenses ranging from failure to pay taxes to revolt,including Hoshea (2Kings 17:4), Jehoiachin (2Kings25:27–29), Manasseh (2Chron. 33:11), and Zedekiah (Jer.52:11). In some cases, the imprisonment of such elites was brutal andinvolved torture (2Chron. 33:11; Jer. 52:11), though Jehoiachinwas later released from prison and allowed to live out his captivityin some comfort (2Kings 25:27–29).
Inthe NT, individuals were also imprisoned for such crimes. Barabbaswas imprisoned by the Roman government of Judea for participating inan insurrection (Mark 15:7). Saul of Tarsus imprisoned a number ofChristians, apparently without what we would today recognize as anycriminal offense (Acts 8:3). Peter was imprisoned by Herod forpolitical gain (Acts 12:4). Paul and Silas were imprisoned fordisturbing the peace of Philippi (Acts 16:23).
Imprisonmentof Prophets
Aspecial case of political incarceration is the imprisonment ofprophets. From the point of view of the biblical writers, prophetswere imprisoned for speaking the truth to a powerful person who didnot want to hear it. From the point of view of those in power,imprisoning dissenters was an important way of suppressing opinionsthat could undermine the regime. In some cases, the imprisonment ofdissenters or troublemakers was a prelude to execution (John theBaptist and Jesus). The practice of imprisonment instead of immediateexecution may reflect the ambivalent attitude of rulers towardcontroversial prophets: they could not be allowed to move aboutfreely in society, but they had some status or right as prophet thatprevented their execution. In some cases, prophets managed toconfront a king without being punished, suggesting that there was acertain level of tolerance for them even when they were notsupportive of royal power, a tolerance that might have contributed tothe use of imprisonment instead of execution.
Ahabimprisoned Micaiah son of Imlah after he delivered an unfavorableoracle (1Kings 22:27). Similarly, Asa imprisoned Hanani theseer (2Chron. 16:10). These kings may have hoped that suchtreatment would coerce better news in the future. Jeremiah (Jer.37:15) and John the Baptist (Mark 6:17) were also imprisoned fordelivering unwelcome messages to those in power.
TheologicalSignificance
Inboth Testaments, release from prison is a symbol of God’ssalvation. The theme is prominent in the psalms, as in Ps. 146:7:“The Lord sets prisoners free” (see also Pss. 68:6;107:10; 142:7). In Acts 12:7 Peter is freed from prison by a divinelysent messenger. Paul wrote a number of letters from prison andidentified himself as a prisoner of Christ (Eph. 3:1; Col. 4:10;2Tim. 1:8; Philem. 1). Some texts refer in mythological termsto a prison that confines spirits or Satan (1Pet. 3:19; Rev.20:7).
Imprisonmentof Criminals
Incomparing modern society to that of biblical times, it is importantto acknowledge what is distinctive about prisons in many modernsocieties. Prisons serve multiple functions, including imposingincarceration as punishment for crimes committed, segregatingdangerous criminals from the larger population, deterring crime byimposing a negative incentive, and rehabilitating offenders so thatthey can eventually return to society. In many cases where modern lawimposes incarceration as the penalty for crime, ancient and biblicallaw imposed economic penalties (such as fines), corporal punishment(beatings), and capital punishment (death). In addition, many of thebiblical references to prisons and prisoners involve what in modernsociety would be considered political rather than criminalincarceration.
Thestory of Joseph prominently features an Egyptian prison. Joseph wasfalsely put in prison for the crime of molesting his master’swife (Gen. 39:19–20), while his companions were imprisoned forthe otherwise unspecified crime of causing offense to the king(40:1). As this story illustrates, the sentences were not of apredetermined duration, and release depended on the goodwill of theking (Gen. 40:13), a situation in which Paul also found himselfhundreds of years later during Roman times (Acts 24:27). When Josephimprisoned his brothers, it was on a presumption of guilt for thecrime of espionage (Gen. 42:16). In Roman times, in contrast, certainprisoners had a right to be put on trial eventually, if not quickly(Acts 25:27; see also 16:37). Imprisonment could also be imposed forfailure to pay a debt (Matt. 18:30). Joseph kept Simeon in prison asa guarantee that his brothers would fulfill a prior agreement (Gen.42:19, 24). In addition to specialized dungeons, prisoners could alsobe confined in houses (Jer. 37:15; Acts 28:16) and pits (Zech. 9:11).
PoliticalImprisonment
Ina number of biblical stories individuals are imprisoned for what wewould today describe as political or ideological reasons. Samson wasimprisoned by the Philistines in retaliation for the havoc that hehad wreaked in their land and probably to prevent further incidents(Judg. 16:21). While in prison, Samson was enslaved. SeveralIsraelite and Judean kings were imprisoned by their Mesopotamianoverlords for offenses ranging from failure to pay taxes to revolt,including Hoshea (2Kings 17:4), Jehoiachin (2Kings25:27–29), Manasseh (2Chron. 33:11), and Zedekiah (Jer.52:11). In some cases, the imprisonment of such elites was brutal andinvolved torture (2Chron. 33:11; Jer. 52:11), though Jehoiachinwas later released from prison and allowed to live out his captivityin some comfort (2Kings 25:27–29).
Inthe NT, individuals were also imprisoned for such crimes. Barabbaswas imprisoned by the Roman government of Judea for participating inan insurrection (Mark 15:7). Saul of Tarsus imprisoned a number ofChristians, apparently without what we would today recognize as anycriminal offense (Acts 8:3). Peter was imprisoned by Herod forpolitical gain (Acts 12:4). Paul and Silas were imprisoned fordisturbing the peace of Philippi (Acts 16:23).
Imprisonmentof Prophets
Aspecial case of political incarceration is the imprisonment ofprophets. From the point of view of the biblical writers, prophetswere imprisoned for speaking the truth to a powerful person who didnot want to hear it. From the point of view of those in power,imprisoning dissenters was an important way of suppressing opinionsthat could undermine the regime. In some cases, the imprisonment ofdissenters or troublemakers was a prelude to execution (John theBaptist and Jesus). The practice of imprisonment instead of immediateexecution may reflect the ambivalent attitude of rulers towardcontroversial prophets: they could not be allowed to move aboutfreely in society, but they had some status or right as prophet thatprevented their execution. In some cases, prophets managed toconfront a king without being punished, suggesting that there was acertain level of tolerance for them even when they were notsupportive of royal power, a tolerance that might have contributed tothe use of imprisonment instead of execution.
Ahabimprisoned Micaiah son of Imlah after he delivered an unfavorableoracle (1Kings 22:27). Similarly, Asa imprisoned Hanani theseer (2Chron. 16:10). These kings may have hoped that suchtreatment would coerce better news in the future. Jeremiah (Jer.37:15) and John the Baptist (Mark 6:17) were also imprisoned fordelivering unwelcome messages to those in power.
TheologicalSignificance
Inboth Testaments, release from prison is a symbol of God’ssalvation. The theme is prominent in the psalms, as in Ps. 146:7:“The Lord sets prisoners free” (see also Pss. 68:6;107:10; 142:7). In Acts 12:7 Peter is freed from prison by a divinelysent messenger. Paul wrote a number of letters from prison andidentified himself as a prisoner of Christ (Eph. 3:1; Col. 4:10;2Tim. 1:8; Philem. 1). Some texts refer in mythological termsto a prison that confines spirits or Satan (1Pet. 3:19; Rev.20:7).
Imprisonmentof Criminals
Incomparing modern society to that of biblical times, it is importantto acknowledge what is distinctive about prisons in many modernsocieties. Prisons serve multiple functions, including imposingincarceration as punishment for crimes committed, segregatingdangerous criminals from the larger population, deterring crime byimposing a negative incentive, and rehabilitating offenders so thatthey can eventually return to society. In many cases where modern lawimposes incarceration as the penalty for crime, ancient and biblicallaw imposed economic penalties (such as fines), corporal punishment(beatings), and capital punishment (death). In addition, many of thebiblical references to prisons and prisoners involve what in modernsociety would be considered political rather than criminalincarceration.
Thestory of Joseph prominently features an Egyptian prison. Joseph wasfalsely put in prison for the crime of molesting his master’swife (Gen. 39:19–20), while his companions were imprisoned forthe otherwise unspecified crime of causing offense to the king(40:1). As this story illustrates, the sentences were not of apredetermined duration, and release depended on the goodwill of theking (Gen. 40:13), a situation in which Paul also found himselfhundreds of years later during Roman times (Acts 24:27). When Josephimprisoned his brothers, it was on a presumption of guilt for thecrime of espionage (Gen. 42:16). In Roman times, in contrast, certainprisoners had a right to be put on trial eventually, if not quickly(Acts 25:27; see also 16:37). Imprisonment could also be imposed forfailure to pay a debt (Matt. 18:30). Joseph kept Simeon in prison asa guarantee that his brothers would fulfill a prior agreement (Gen.42:19, 24). In addition to specialized dungeons, prisoners could alsobe confined in houses (Jer. 37:15; Acts 28:16) and pits (Zech. 9:11).
PoliticalImprisonment
Ina number of biblical stories individuals are imprisoned for what wewould today describe as political or ideological reasons. Samson wasimprisoned by the Philistines in retaliation for the havoc that hehad wreaked in their land and probably to prevent further incidents(Judg. 16:21). While in prison, Samson was enslaved. SeveralIsraelite and Judean kings were imprisoned by their Mesopotamianoverlords for offenses ranging from failure to pay taxes to revolt,including Hoshea (2Kings 17:4), Jehoiachin (2Kings25:27–29), Manasseh (2Chron. 33:11), and Zedekiah (Jer.52:11). In some cases, the imprisonment of such elites was brutal andinvolved torture (2Chron. 33:11; Jer. 52:11), though Jehoiachinwas later released from prison and allowed to live out his captivityin some comfort (2Kings 25:27–29).
Inthe NT, individuals were also imprisoned for such crimes. Barabbaswas imprisoned by the Roman government of Judea for participating inan insurrection (Mark 15:7). Saul of Tarsus imprisoned a number ofChristians, apparently without what we would today recognize as anycriminal offense (Acts 8:3). Peter was imprisoned by Herod forpolitical gain (Acts 12:4). Paul and Silas were imprisoned fordisturbing the peace of Philippi (Acts 16:23).
Imprisonmentof Prophets
Aspecial case of political incarceration is the imprisonment ofprophets. From the point of view of the biblical writers, prophetswere imprisoned for speaking the truth to a powerful person who didnot want to hear it. From the point of view of those in power,imprisoning dissenters was an important way of suppressing opinionsthat could undermine the regime. In some cases, the imprisonment ofdissenters or troublemakers was a prelude to execution (John theBaptist and Jesus). The practice of imprisonment instead of immediateexecution may reflect the ambivalent attitude of rulers towardcontroversial prophets: they could not be allowed to move aboutfreely in society, but they had some status or right as prophet thatprevented their execution. In some cases, prophets managed toconfront a king without being punished, suggesting that there was acertain level of tolerance for them even when they were notsupportive of royal power, a tolerance that might have contributed tothe use of imprisonment instead of execution.
Ahabimprisoned Micaiah son of Imlah after he delivered an unfavorableoracle (1Kings 22:27). Similarly, Asa imprisoned Hanani theseer (2Chron. 16:10). These kings may have hoped that suchtreatment would coerce better news in the future. Jeremiah (Jer.37:15) and John the Baptist (Mark 6:17) were also imprisoned fordelivering unwelcome messages to those in power.
TheologicalSignificance
Inboth Testaments, release from prison is a symbol of God’ssalvation. The theme is prominent in the psalms, as in Ps. 146:7:“The Lord sets prisoners free” (see also Pss. 68:6;107:10; 142:7). In Acts 12:7 Peter is freed from prison by a divinelysent messenger. Paul wrote a number of letters from prison andidentified himself as a prisoner of Christ (Eph. 3:1; Col. 4:10;2Tim. 1:8; Philem. 1). Some texts refer in mythological termsto a prison that confines spirits or Satan (1Pet. 3:19; Rev.20:7).
Colossians is a letter sent by Paul to a church in Colossaewhen he was in prison. The letter was Paul’s first directcontact with the church, which may have been started by one of hismissionary associates, Epaphras (Col. 1:7). Epaphras was fromColossae (4:12), a city of Asia Minor located in the Lycus Valley,known for its fertile soil and green pastures. Some commentatorssuggest that Epaphras also started churches in Hierapolis andLaodicea (4:13), neighboring cities in the valley that were situatedaround the Lycus River about ten miles apart. Colossae was a freecity located on the main Roman road that ran from Ephesus and Sardistoward the east, and it was populated by native Phrygians, as well asGreeks, Romans, and Jews. More than likely, the church was foundedduring Paul’s extended ministry in Ephesus, where persons fromthe region heard Paul’s gospel and from where Paul sentmissionary associates such as Epaphras into the surrounding cities(Acts 19). Tychicus, the letter carrier (Col. 4:7–8), was alsoone of Paul’s associates from the same region; he decided toaccompany Paul to Macedonia after the team left Ephesus (Acts 20:4).
Theclose association of these churches in Asia Minor and the time framewhen the letters were written may explain why Paul’s letter tothe Colossians is so similar in content to his letter to theEphesians. Paul was in prison (probably in Rome) when he sent both ofthese letters (Eph. 3:1; Col. 4:10, 18). The instructions regardingTychicus, the carrier for both letters, are identical, nearlyverbatim (Eph. 6:21–22; Col. 4:7–8). The letters sharethe same outline, following some of the same themes, especiallytoward the end, where Paul gives instructions regarding thehousehold. An affinity also exists between Colossians and Philemon, aletter sent to the patron of one of the house churches in Colossae.Most of the names mentioned by Paul appear in both letters: Timothy,Onesimus, Archippus, Epaphras, Mark, Aristarchus, Demas, and Luke(Col. 1:1; 4:9–17; Philem. 1, 10, 23–24). Paul was alsoin prison, along with Epaphras, at the time he sent his letter toPhilemon. All of this indicates that these letters were written aboutthe same time, from the same place, to the same region. Why did Paulsend three letters to the same region, especially since letterproduction was so expensive? Why not send one letter to the entireregion (like Galatians), to be read by all the house churches?Obviously, the problems of each church were so different that theyrequired a separate authoritative word from their apostle.
QuestionablePractices in Colossae
TheColossians were doing several things that Paul found troublesome, aswe learn from Col. 2. They were judging each other for not keepingcertain dietary regulations and holy days (2:16). Some were claimingsuperiority through personal worship experiences that involvedvisions of angels (2:18). Some subscribed to strict discipline of thehuman body, punishing themselves through various acts ofself-abasem*nt in order to curb fleshly appetites (2:23) and enhancetheir worship experiences (2:18). It seems that many of them weretrying to live by an expanded version of the divine command given inthe story of Adam, Eve, and the forbidden fruit: “Do nothandle! Do not taste! Do not touch!” (2:21). Paul recognizedthat all these claims and rules had the “appearance of wisdom”but in reality were nothing more than traditions based on“self-imposed” religion, and that such ascetic practiceswere useless in denying fleshly appetites (2:22–23). Where didthe Colossians get all these strange ideas that led to such bizarrebehavior?
Pauldescribed the false teaching as an imprisoning “through hollowand deceptive philosophy, which depends on human tradition and theelemental spiritual forces” in opposition to the teachings ofChrist (2:8). Because the Colossian church was made up primarily ofGentile converts (1:27), many interpreters argue that the problemsresulted from the meshing of the gospel with local, pagan ways. ThePhrygians were known for their fascination with magical rituals, theability to manipulate the powers (earth, wind, fire, spirits, angels,often referred to as “elementary principles of the world”)for human purposes. Paul’s description of the false teaching asa “hollow and deceptive philosophy” based on the “humantradition” may also reveal the influence of Greek ideas andRoman ways in the church. The Greeks operated with a dualisticworldview of spirit versus flesh, leading some philosophers to arguethat punishing the body ensured purity of the soul. Furthermore, theRomans believed that the gods had given them power to rule the world,bringing fertility to the lands of conquered peoples. WorshipingCaesar brought economic rewards to devoted subjects of the empire. Inother words, all this talk in the Colossian letter about power andsovereignty, philosophy and self-discipline was Paul’s way ofdealing directly with the root of the problem: the syncretism ofpagan ways and the gospel according to Paul.
Someinterpreters believe that all these peculiar teachings derive notfrom pagan religions but rather from Judaism. After all, Paul’sreferences to observing the Sabbath, keeping commandments, andangelic worship point toward a Jewish context. Paul also affirmedthat his Gentile converts were “circumcised with a circumcisionnot performed by human hands” (2:11), perhaps revealing hisconcern that Jewish ways were creeping into his Gentile church. Heeven put the church on notice, identifying those among “thecircumcision” (Jews) who were trustworthy ministers of thegospel (he mentions only three, Barnabas, John Mark, and Jesus calledJustus [4:10–11]). The implication, of course, was to ignorethe rest of “the circumcision.” But if the troublemakersin Colossae were Jewish opponents of Paul, how does one explain allthe mystical and ascetic elements of this false teaching? Some arguethat the expression “worship of angels” was not anidolatrous practice of venerating angelic beings. Instead, the phraseshould be translated “angelic worship,” implying thatsome Colossians claimed to have been transported to heaven and joinedthe angels in worship of God. This may have been similar to theexperiences of an obscure form of Judaism: Jewish mystics who claimedto preserve esoteric revelations through out-of-body experiences ofheavenly visions and auditions (see Paul’s description in2 Cor. 12:1–7). Furthermore, the strict dietary code andsexual ethic of Jewish law were often interpreted by first-centurypagans as promoting an ascetic lifestyle. In other words, Paul wascountering a more cryptic branch of Judaism that flourished in aregion known for its affinity for the mysterious.
Outlineand Content
I.Introduction (1:1–14)
A.Greeting (1:1–2)
B.Thanksgiving (1:3–8)
C.Prayer (1:9–14)
II.The Person and Work of Christ (1:15–23)
III.Paul’s Role in Christ’s Mission to the Gentiles(1:24–2:5)
IV.False Teaching versus the Work of Christ (2:6–23)
V.Instructions on Life in Christ
A.In the church (3:1–17)
B.In the home (3:18–4:1)
VI.Generic Exhortations (4:2–6)
VII.Specific Instructions (4:7–9)
VIII.Final Greetings (4:10–17)
IX.Paul’s Signature (4:18)
Whateverthe source of the false teaching referred to in Colossians, Paulattempts to correct the misbehavior of his Gentile converts bybuilding an argument that the work of Christ is all-sufficient. Paulbegins the letter by describing the person and work of Christ incosmic terms (1:15–23). Next he recounts his role in themission of Christ to bring the riches of the kingdom to Gentiles(1:24–2:5). After reminding the Colossians of their receptionof the gospel, Paul juxtaposes the deceptive practices of the falseteaching with the evidence of the work of Christ in them (2:6–23).Then he gives a number of instructions on what life in Christ issupposed to look like: in the church (3:1–17) and in the home(3:18–4:1). He concludes the letter with generic exhortations(4:2–6), specific instructions (4:7–9), and greetings(4:10–17). Finally, Paul signs the letter, obviously written bya secretary, with the simple request: “Remember my chains”(4:18)—a curious signature that makes the argument of hisletter even more appealing.
ThePower and Peace of Christ’s Kingdom
Itis ironic that Paul chose to describe the work of Christ in suchgrandiose terms, picturing him as a mighty ruler over all creation,even while the apostle was in prison—an undeniable sign ofRoman sovereignty. In Col. 1, in some of the loftiest language Paulever used to describe Christ’s kingdom authority, the apostlereminds his converts that the Lord is “the image of theinvisible God, the firstborn over all creation” (v. 15),an obvious reference to Christ’s deity. Then Paul piles on theattributes, presenting Christ as the creator of all things, evenangelic creatures (v. 16), the sustainer of all things (v. 17),the head of the church, the eternal one, the guarantor of theresurrection (v. 18), the fullness of God (v. 19), thereconciler of all things—the one who made peace with theenemies of God through his blood on the cross (vv. 20–22).Despite Paul’s circ*mstances and what Rome may claim, theapostle holds fast to the irrepressible sovereignty of Christ’skingdom, displayed by Paul’s perseverance in the midst ofsuffering and the full assurance that every Colossian believer is“fully mature in Christ” (vv. 22–29). Indeed, allthe treasures of Christ’s kingdom—love, knowledge,wisdom, discipline—are to be found in the life of his converts(2:1–5), unless someone “deludes” them intothinking otherwise.
Paul’srhetorical strategy of extolling the power of Christ’s kingdommakes perfect sense in light of the false teaching that was plaguingthe Colossian church. Apparently, the Colossians were persuaded tofeel inadequate about their faith, vulnerable to the imposition oflegalistic standards that ensured victory over fleshly indulgences.To counter his opponents, Paul unpacks the significance of theincarnation and the cross (2:9–15). Because Christ was God inflesh (in whom “all the fullness of the Deity lives in bodilyform” [v. 9]), his death on the cross was a cosmic eventthat defeated all the powers that oppose God. Using military imagery,Paul argues that Christ canceled every debt against humanity when henailed all “decrees” (even Caesar’s) to the cross.In that singular act of sacrifice, Christ disarmed the foes of God,humiliating them publicly by making a spectacle of them, triumphingover all powers (v. 15)—something that Caesar loved to doafter successful military campaigns. Therefore, if Christ’svictory over all powers has been secured through his death, and sincehe rules as the firstborn of the dead (resurrection) over allcreation, and since the Colossians are “fully mature in Christ”(1:28) because of their faith in him, then no pretense ofself-abasem*nt or angelic visions can diminish what Christ has doneand will continue to do in the lives of Paul’s converts inColossae. Christ is all they needed to overcome the powers.
InCol. 3, Paul tells how the Colossians draw upon the power of Christwhen they “set [their] minds on things above, not on earthlythings” (v. 2). The things on the earth are “sexualimmorality, impurity, lust, evil desires and greed” (v. 5).Paul believes that his converts died with Christ (“hidden withChrist in God” [v. 3]) and therefore had set aside allthese idolatrous practices when they put on the “new self,”being conformed to the image of Christ (vv. 8–10). This renewalwill be found in all believers, regardless of ethnicity (v. 11),and will result in peace for all. Indeed, Paul sees the “peaceof Christ” as the undeniable evidence of his reign exhibited inthe hearts of those who believe (vv. 12–15). And what wouldthat peace look like? Believers will be patient, forgiving oneanother with hearts full of compassion, kindness, humility,gentleness, and love resulting in unity (vv. 12–14). Theirworship of God will be characterized by songs of thankfulness andadmonition, receiving the word with wisdom (v. 16). In theirhomes husbands, wives, and children will model deference and love,and masters and slaves will seek justice and fairness, as if theywere serving Christ (3:18–4:1). The Colossians will be devotedto prayer, will treat outsiders fairly, and will be known for alwaysspeaking graceful words (4:2–6). In other words, where Caesar’sempire has promoted Roman peace by enforcing Roman law in provinces,cities, and households, Paul believes that the peace of Christ willrule the hearts of his subjects, establishing a kingdom of love andunity, in word and deed, in the home as well as the church. So, inhis final greetings, Paul talks about faithful slaves and belovedsiblings as sources of encouragement in the ever-expanding work ofthe kingdom of God (4:7–17), making his simple request,“Remember my chains” (4:18), sound more like an act ofdefiance than a pitiful plea.
Rising above the ordinary routine of church life, Paul pens amajestic letter calling Christians to remember what God has done forthem in Christ and to walk worthy of their calling. Ephesians standsas an extremely significant and intensely practical book for today’schurch.
Authorship
Paulclaims to be the author of Ephesians (1:1–2; 3:1), and itsauthenticity is well attested in the early church. A good portion ofEphesians is presented in the first person (1:15–18; 3:1–3,7–8, 13–17; 4:1, 17; 5:32; 6:19–22), includinginformation related to his prayers, apostolic ministry, and commentsabout Tychicus, the letter carrier. In addition, Ephesians seems tohave been quoted by many of the Apostolic Fathers and is included inearly lists of the NT. Since the end of the eighteenth century,however, some have doubted the Pauline authorship of Ephesians forthe following reasons (accompanied by counterarguments).
1.Theauthor does not seem to know his audience personally (1:15; 3:2). The“impersonal nature” of the letter makes better sense,however, if it was intended for a wider audience (see “Destination”below).
2.Thelanguage and style of Ephesians do not match Paul’s otherletters (i.e., unique words and phrases, cumbersome sentences). Yetthere are more unique words in Galatians and Philippians, for theirlength, than in Ephesians. Paul’s style in this letter isundoubtedly more reflective, and he may also have used a trustedsecretary (amanuensis), which could account for much of the unusualwording.
3.Themany parallels between Ephesians and Colossians suggest that someoneother than Paul wrote Ephesians as an imitation of Colossians. Yetparallels are to be expected between two letters sent to the samearea at the same time when one deals with a doctrinal error(Colossians) and the other aims to prevent the error from spreadingby reflecting on the deep truths of the faith (Ephesians).
4.Thetheology of Ephesians differs from his undisputed letters (e.g.,emphasizing the universal church and deemphasizing justification byfaith and the return of Christ). However, the overall purpose of theletter and the lack of an impending church crisis make these emphasesfully understandable.
Whilethese four arguments against Pauline authorship are to be takenseriously, the traditional view that Paul wrote Ephesians remains thepreferred option. The explicit statements within the text, theunanimous support of the early church, the likely use of a secretary,the absence of a looming crisis, and the overall purpose of theletter offer good reasons to suppose that Paul wrote Ephesians.
Placeof Origin and Date
Ephesianswas written while Paul was a prisoner (see Eph. 3:1; 4:1; 6:20), buthe had been imprisoned on more than one occasion. The traditionalview locates Paul in Rome under house arrest when he pens the letter(along with the other Prison Epistles: Colossians, Philemon, andPhilippians). Since Tychicus delivered Ephesians, Colossians, andlikely Philemon, all three letters must have been written from thesame place (Eph. 6:21–22; Col. 4:7–9). Acts 28:30–31reports that Paul was held captive in Rome for two years, but heretained limited freedom to meet with people and to minister (Eph.6:19–20; Phil. 1:12–13; Col. 4:3–4). Luke’suse of “we” in Acts 28 indicates that he was with Paul inRome during that imprisonment (see also Col. 4:14; Philem. 24). Also,Aristarchus, who traveled with Paul to Rome (Acts 27:2), is mentionedin two Prison Epistles (Col. 4:10; Philem.24).
Thetwo leading alternatives to Rome for the place of origin are Ephesusitself and Caesarea. Because of Paul’s comment about fightingwild beasts in Ephesus (1Cor. 15:32; cf. 2Cor. 1:8–11),some have suggested that Paul was imprisoned there, but there is noclear evidence to support that theory. On the other hand, Acts doesrefer to a lengthy imprisonment for Paul in Caesarea (Acts 24:27).When Paul writes to Philemon, he requests a guest room for anupcoming visit (Philem. 22). In Caesarea, however, Paul had appealedto Caesar and expected a trip to Rome rather than release from prison(Acts 25:10–11). Overall, the traditional view that Paul wroteEphesians from Rome has more support than the alternative views.
Ifthe place of origin is Rome, then Paul wrote Ephesians during hisfirst Roman imprisonment, around AD 60–62. Most likely, Paulwrote Ephesians about the same time he wrote Colossians and Philemon,in the early or middle part of that imprisonment.
Destination
AlthoughEphesians traditionally has been connected to the city of Ephesus,the words “in Ephesus” (1:1) are absent from some of theearliest and best Greek manuscripts. The letter itself even suggeststhat Paul may have been writing for a wider audience. In spite ofliving in Ephesus for several years, Paul mentions no church membersby name (6:21–24), and he makes the awkward comments that hehas “heard about” their faith and love (1:15) and assumesthey have “heard about” how God has used him (3:2; cf.4:21). Almost certainly Paul intended this general letter tocirculate among several churches in Asia Minor, with each church“filling in the blank” as the letter was read publicly.Since Ephesus was the leading city, the letter became associated morepermanently with Ephesus at an early stage. It is also possible thatEphesians is the “letter from Laodicea” mentioned in Col.4:16, assuming that Tychicus first delivered the letter to Ephesus,with instructions to send it on to Laodicea and Colossae.
Purpose
Pauldid not write Ephesians to solve a major problem or deal with anyparticular emergency in the church. Instead, he wrote a broadlyreflective letter to help Christians remain strong in their faith. Hehad spent almost three years teaching and caring for some of thesepeople, and he wanted to make sure that they continued to followJesus. Specifically, Paul wanted believers to have a deeperunderstanding and experience of three realities: (1)the newlife in Christ; (2)the new community in Christ; (3)thenew walk to which Christ called them.
Paulfocuses on the new life experienced in Jesus Christ. The expression“in Christ” and parallel phrases such as “in theLord” or “in him” are found almost forty times inEphesians. God will unite and restore all of creation under one Lord,Jesus Christ (1:10). Paul also stresses the new community throughwords such as “unity,” “one,” and“with/together with” and concepts such as church, body,temple, and bride. When we are connected to Christ, we are alsoconnected to a new community. This new community is called to a newwalk that honors Christ, one characterized by love for God and forpeople.
Outlineand Contents
I.Letter Opening (1:1–2)
II.Praise for Spiritual Blessings in Christ (1:3–14)
III.Prayer for Spiritual Understanding (1:15–23)
IV.New Life in Christ (2:1–10)
V.New Community in Christ (2:11–22)
VI.Paul’s Unique Role in God’s Plan (3:1–13)
VII.Paul’s Prayer for the New Community (3:14–21)
VIII.New Walk in Christ (4:1–6:20)
A.Walk in unity (4:1–16)
B.Walk in holiness (4:17–32)
C.Walk in love (5:1–6)
D.Walk in light (5:7–14)
E.Walk carefully (5:15–6:9)
F.Walk in the Lord’s strength (6:10–20)
IX.Letter Closing (6:21–24)
I.Letter opening (1:1–2).The letter opens in typical fashion by naming the author and theaudience before adding a greeting. Paul, an “apostle of ChristJesus by the will of God,” writes to God’s people inEphesus (and surrounding cities). He greets his readers with “graceand peace,” themes that appear throughout the letter.
II.Praise for spiritual blessings in Christ (1:3–14).Ephesians explodes in adoration and praise: “Praise be to [or‘blessed be’] the God ... who has blessed us... with every spiritual blessing in Christ.” God’speople praise him for their election (1:4–6), for theirredemption and wisdom to understand God’s master plan (1:7–12),and for sealing them with the Holy Spirit (1:13–14). Eachsection ends with a similar phrase, “to the praise of hisglory” (1:6, 12, 14), showing that the triune God in hisessential character (his glory) is worthy of highest praise.
III.Prayer for spiritual understanding (1:15–23).After praising God for his blessings, Paul now asks for spiritualwisdom that his audience might comprehend those blessings (asdescribed in both the previous section and the rest of the letter).As the Spirit enlightens their hearts, they come to know the hope ofGod’s calling, the glory of God’s inheritance, and thegreatness of God’s power (1:18–19), which was supremelydisplayed in Jesus Christ’s resurrection and exaltation(1:20–23).
IV.New life in Christ (2:1–10).Paul now turns his attention to the new life available in Christ(2:1–10). First, he offers a lengthy description of a person’sspiritual state without Christ (2:1–3). Second, he explains howGod came to the rescue of such helpless and hopeless people. Moved byhis love and mercy, God has mysteriously allowed believers toparticipate in Christ’s death, resurrection, and exaltation(2:4–6). God’s purpose in saving people was todemonstrate the “riches of his grace” expressed to us inJesus (2:7). There is perhaps no better summary of this salvationmessage than 2:8–10: the basis of salvation is God’sgrace, the means of receiving salvation is faith, and the result ofsalvation is good works.
V.New community in Christ (2:11–22).God not only has given new life to individuals in Christ but also hascreated a new community, comprised of both Jews and Gentiles. AsGentiles, the Ephesians’ condition outside of Christ wasdesperate: no Messiah, no connection to God’s people, nopromise of salvation, no hope, and no relationship with God(2:11–12). But now they have been brought near through Christ’ssacrifice on the cross (2:13). In Christ, Jews and Gentiles have nowbeen reconciled to each other in a new spiritual community (2:14–18).They are full-fledged members of God’s kingdom and God’sfamily. What is more, they are even part of God’s holy temple(2:19–22).
VI.Paul’s unique role in God’s plan (3:1–13).After describing God’s strategy to unite Jewish and Gentilebelievers in Christ, Paul begins to pray for these believers (3:1).Almost immediately, however, he breaks off his prayer to explain moreabout God’s “secret plan” or “mystery”and his own role in that plan. Only the grace and power of God couldtransform a persecutor of the church into one of the church’sgreat leaders (3:2–9). Now God is using his multiculturalchurch to announce his manifold wisdom to the heavenly powers(3:10–11). Since God is using Paul to fulfill his purpose, noone should be discouraged by Paul’s sufferings (3:12–13).
VII.Paul’s prayer for the new community (3:14–21).Paul now resumes his prayer (3:1) and asks that God may strengthenbelievers by the Holy Spirit in their inner being according to hisglorious riches (3:16). They will know the prayer has been answeredwhen Christ feels at home in their hearts and they experience hisindescribable love more and more. The final purpose of the prayer isthat they be filled with the “fullness of God” or becomelike Christ (3:17–19; cf. 4:13). Although it may appear thatPaul has asked for too much, the doxology in 3:20–21 affirmsthat God is able to do more than can be imagined.
VIII.New walk in Christ (4:1–6:20).God’s gift of new life and his creation of a new community inChrist (chaps. 1–3) call for a new walk (chaps. 4–6). Theimportant Greek word oun (“then, therefore”) in 4:1 marksa transition from the blessings and privileges of the church (chaps.1–3) to the conduct and responsibilities of the church (chaps.4–6). Obedience comes as a response to God’s grace.
A.Walk in unity (4:1–16).Believers are urged to live a life (or walk) worthy of their calling(4:1), and this worthy walk begins by maintaining the unity of theSpirit (4:3). The triune God perfectly exemplifies a diverse unity(4:4–6), and Paul suggests in 4:7–13 that diversitywithin the body of Christ actually enriches unity. All members aregifted, but they are gifted in different ways so as to benefit thebody. The goal of unity is full maturity in Christ, resulting indiscernment, truth, edification, and love (4:14–16).
B.Walk in holiness (4:17–32).Paul reminds his audience that rather than living like pagans(4:17–19), they have put off the old self (former life apartfrom Christ) and have put on “the new self, created to be likeGod in true righteousness and holiness” (4:20–24). Nowthey are called to live like the new people that they are in Christ.Paul offers a list of specific exhortations in 4:25–32 toillustrate what it means to walk in holiness.
C.Walk in love (5:1–6).Along with walking in unity and holiness, believers are called towalk in love. Positively, this means imitating the Father and lovingsacrificially like the Son (5:1–2). Negatively, this meansrefusing to indulge in selfish sensuality (5:3–6). Paul closesthis section by warning that immoral, impure, greedy, idolatrouspeople will inherit God’s wrath rather than God’skingdom.
D.Walk in light (5:7–14). Althoughbelievers once lived in darkness, they are now light in the Lord andshould walk as children of light (5:7–9). They need to discernwhat pleases the Lord and reject the useless deeds of darkness(5:10–11a). Instead, they are to expose and transform thedarkness (5:11b–14).
E.Walk carefully (5:15–6:9).Paul, using three contrasts, cautions believers to walk carefully:not as unwise, but as wise (5:15); not as foolish, but withunderstanding (5:17); and not getting drunk, but being filled withthe Spirit (5:18). Paul then specifies three results of being filledwith the Spirit: worship, gratitude, and mutual submission (5:19–21).In 5:22–6:9 Paul explains how this final characteristic (mutualsubmission) is applied within the Christian household.
F.Walk in the Lord’s strength (6:10–20).Paul concludes with instructions about walking in the Lord’sstrength. Christ has already won the victory over the powers of evil,but believers should expect continued attacks. Their task is to standfirm, using God’s armor of truth, righteousness, the gospel ofpeace, faith, salvation, and the word of God. Prayer is required toappropriate the armor of God. Paul began the letter by praying forhis readers (1:15–23); now he asks them to pray that he willfearlessly declare the mystery of the gospel.
IX.Letter closing (6:21–24).Paul concludes with a commendation of Tychicus, the letter carrier,and a benediction of peace, love, and grace.
In the NT the most common word used for “minister”is diakonos (e.g., 2Cor. 3:6), and for “ministry,”diakonia (e.g., 1Cor. 16:15 [NIV: “service”]).These words function as umbrella terms for NT writers to describe thewhole range of ministries performed by the church. They can describeeither a special ministry performed by an official functionary(1Cor. 3:5) or one performed by any believer (Rev. 2:19). Inthe early church, ministry was based not on institutional hierarchiesbut on services performed (1Tim. 3:1–13).
Theministry of Jesus.The church’s mind-set flows out of the way in which Jesusunderstood his ministry. He described his ministry pattern as that ofserving (Matt. 20:28; Mark 10:45; John 13:4–17). Thus, hecalled his disciples to follow a model of leadership in the newcommunity that did not elevate them above others (Matt. 20:20–28;23:8–12; cf. 1Pet. 5:3).
Jesus’ministry provides the paradigm for the ministry of the church. The NTwriters describe the threefold ministry of Jesus as preaching,teaching, and healing (Matt. 4:23; 9:35; Mark 1:14, 21–22, 39;Acts 10:36–38). The disciples carried on the earthly ministryof Jesus by the power of the Spirit. They too engaged in preaching,teaching, and healing (Matt. 10:7–8; 28:19–20).
Theministry of the church.The church, because it is the body of Christ, continues theseministry responsibilities. In 1Pet. 4:10–11 is a summaryof the overarching ministries of the church, which include speakingthe words of God and serving. As a priesthood of believers (Exod.19:4–6; 1Pet. 2:5, 9; Rev. 1:5–6), individualmembers took responsibility for fulfilling the various tasks ofservice. Thus, all Christians are called to minister (Rom. 15:27;Philem. 13; 1Pet. 2:16). Even when a member strayed, it wasanother believer’s responsibility to confront that waywardperson and, if necessary, involve others in the body to help (Matt.18:15–20).
Althoughministry was the responsibility of all believers, there were thosewith special expertise whom Christ and the church set apart forparticular leadership roles (Eph. 4:11–12). Christ set apartApollos and Paul for special ministries (1Cor. 3:5; Eph. 3:7).The church called on special functionaries to carry out specificministries. For example, the early church appointed seven individualsto serve tables (Acts 6:2). They appointed certain ones to carry therelief fund collected for the Jerusalem Christians (2Cor. 8:19,23). As special functionaries, Paul, Apollos, Timothy, Titus, theelders, as well as others accepted the responsibility of teaching andpreaching and healing for the whole church.
Allthe ministries of the church, whether performed by believers ingeneral or by some specially appointed functionary, were based ongifts received from God (Rom. 12:1–8; 1Cor. 12:4–26).God gave individuals the abilities necessary to perform works ofservice (Acts 20:24; Eph. 4:11; Col. 4:17; 1Tim. 1:12; 1Pet.4:11). The NT, however, makes it clear that when it comes to one’srelationship and spiritual status before God, all Christians areequal. Yet in equality there is diversity of gifts and talents. Paulidentifies some gifts given to individuals for special positions:apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors, and teachers (Eph. 4:11).The description here is of special ministry roles that Christ callscertain individuals to fulfill based on the gifts given to them. Theones fulfilling these roles did not do all the ministry of the churchbut rather equipped the rest of the body to do ministry (Eph.4:12–13). No one can boast in the gifts given to him or herbecause those gifts were given for ministry to others (1Cor.4:7). Thus, gifts lead to service, and in turn service results inleadership.
Itbecomes the responsibility of those who lead to equip others forministry. When others are equipped for ministry, they in turnminister and edify the whole body (Eph. 4:15–16; 2Tim.2:1–2). The goal of all ministry, according to Paul, is tobuild up a community of believers until all reach maturity in Christ(Rom. 15:15–17; 1Cor. 3:5–4:5; Eph. 4:12–16;1Thess. 2:19–20).
The word “Gentiles” is often used to translatewords meaning “nations” or “peoples.” It hasa Latin etymology from gens, meaning “clan” or “family”and, eventually, “race” or “people.” TheGreek word genos (“race, kind”) has a close relationship.In the Bible it loosely refers to nations or peoples other thanIsrael. English Bibles often translate it as “nations,”“peoples,” or “races.”
OldTestament
Ingeneral, within the OT, Gentiles are not God’s people. Godchose Israel to be his people, not other nations (Deut. 7:6–8;10:15; 26:18–19). Israelite ancestry determines membership inthe covenant people. Some writings thus forbid Gentiles from becomingpart of God’s people (Ezra 9–10; Neh. 13).
TheOT more commonly envisions Gentiles experiencing covenant blessingthrough Israel if they functionally become Israelites by keeping thelaw, including the parts we understand as ceremonial-ritual law. Thelaw is that special life-giving and regulating aspect of the covenantthat God revealed to Israel, which defines Israel (Lev. 18:1–5;20:22–26; Deut. 4:1–8, 32–40; 6:24–25; 8:1–6;10:12–11:32; 30:11–20; Josh. 1:7–9; Neh. 9:29; Pss.119; 147:19–20; Ezek. 20:9–13, 21).
Suchlaw/Israel-centered conditions for Gentiles relate to a broader OTunderstanding: God will reach and restore the world through Israel,the locus of his saving activity. God will bless the nations in andthrough Abraham’s descendants, Israel (Gen. 12:1–3;17:4–6; 22:18; 26:4; 28:14). This covenant specificallyinvolves keeping the law (e.g., circumcision [Gen. 17:9–14]).Some passages depict this happening through the nations being subjectto Israel (Gen. 49:8–12; Num. 24:9, 17–19; Isa. 11:10–16;14:2; 54:3). In other passages the nations will be blessed byIsrael’s God as they come to Israel, bring back exiled Israel,serve Israel, present Israel with their own wealth, and/or fearIsrael’s God (Isa. 45:23; 49:22–23; 51:4–5; 55:5;60:3–16; 61:5–6; 66:12–13, 18–21; Mic.7:12–17; Zech. 2:11; 8:22–23). Other passages furtherelucidate the law-defined nature of such Gentile participation in theGod of Israel’s salvation (Exod. 12:48; Isa. 56:1–8; Jer.12:14–17; Zech. 14:16–21). The portrait of the nations“flowing” up the mountain of God associates Gentileparticipation in God’s salvation explicitly with the law (Isa.2:2–5; Mic. 4:1–5).
TheServant Songs in Isa. 40–55 also reflect thislaw/Israel-centered nature of salvation for the Gentiles. Theservant, explicitly identified as Israel (41:8, 9; 42:18–19;44:1–2, 21; 45:4; 48:20; 49:3; 54:17; see also 65:9; 66:14),serves as God’s instrument for reaching the nations (42:1, 6;49:6; 52:15). The OT usually condemns Gentiles who remain separatefrom Israel to some form of judgment, especially Gentiles who haveharmed Israel.
SecondTemple Judaism and Early Christianity
SecondTemple Jewish sources exhibit diverse views about Gentiles, theirnature, their possible relation to God, and their fate at the end.Many reflect something resembling the OT views. Israel as God’speople defined by the law, variously understood and contested amongSecond Temple sources, generally continues to be the locus of God’sultimate blessing activities.
SituatingJesus and early Christianity within this matrix of Gentilesensitivities is illuminating. As the Jesus movement spread acrossthe Mediterranean, proclaiming the ultimate salvation of the God ofIsrael in and through Jesus the Messiah, questions about how Gentilesexperience this salvation of the Jewish God had paramount importance.
SomeChristians, in line with traditional readings of the OT, thought thatGentiles must keep the law, becoming Jews to experience the God ofIsrael’s salvation in Jesus (Acts 11:1–3; 15:1, 5; Paul’sopponents in Galatia). Gentiles, after all, were separated from Godand his salvation promises to Israel (Rom. 9:4–5; Eph. 2:11–13;1Pet. 2:10). They stood under God’s condemnation,especially because they were controlled by their passions and sin,lacking self-mastery and the ability to live rightly (Rom. 1:18–32;Eph. 4:17–19; 1Thess. 4:5; 1Pet. 1:14, 18).
However,various NT authors, such as Paul, contend that Gentiles need not keepthe law, functionally becoming Jews, in order to participate in God’sultimate salvation in Jesus. Christ, the climax of Israel itself, hasreplaced the law’s centrality and ultimacy with himself and hisdeath and resurrection (Rom. 10:4). Through being united to Christ bythe Spirit, Gentiles are, apart from the law, grafted into true,redefined Israel and become Abraham’s descendants, inheritingGod’s promised salvation for Israel (Rom. 3:21–4:25;8:1–17; 9:30–10:17; 11:13–32; Gal. 2:11–4:7;Eph. 2:11–22; 3:4–6). In Christ, by the Spirit, Gentilesattain self-mastery over their passions and sin and thus live rightlybefore God, inheriting the kingdom of God in Christ (Rom. 6:1–8:30;1Cor. 6:9–11; Gal. 5:16–26; 1Thess. 4:3–8).Various NT writings thus reconfigure the situation of Gentiles withrespect to Israel’s God because of what God did in Christ.
Debatesabout Gentiles, the law, salvation, and what Christ means for theseissues persisted after Paul. Early Christians lacked an unequivocalsaying from Jesus on the matter, and not all accepted Paul and someother NT writings.
Theterm “predestination” means “to determine or decidesomething beforehand.” Some form of the Greek verb proorizō(“to determine beforehand”)occurs six times in the NT (Acts 4:28; Rom. 8:29, 30; 1Cor.2:7; Eph. 1:5, 11). It is practically synonymous with the concept offoreordination and is closely related to divine foreknowledge (Acts2:23; Rom. 8:29; 1Pet. 1:1–2, 20). Various Scripturesindicate that God the Father is the one who predestines (John17:6–10; Rom. 8:29; Eph. 1:3–5; 1Pet. 1:2).
Thespecific objects of predestination are humans, angels, and theMessiah. These divine predeterminations occurred before the creationof the world and were motivated by the love of God (Eph. 1:4–5).In regard to humans, this means that in eternity past, God determinedthat some individuals would be the recipients of his salvation.However, this determination does not rule out the necessity of humanchoice, responsibility, and faith. The decision to predestine someindividuals for salvation was based not upon anything good or bad inthe recipients, but solely on God’s good pleasure and accordingto his holy, wise, and eternal purpose (Isa. 46:10; Acts 13:48; Rom.11:33).
Predestinationas Part of God’s Larger Plan
Thescope of God’s plan. Predestinationis a part of God’s all-encompassing eternal plan (Isa.40:13–14; Rom. 11:34; Eph. 1:11). Several terms express God’splan. Among these are his “decree” (Ps. 2:7), “eternalpurpose” (Eph. 3:11), “foreknowledge” (Acts 2:23),and “will” (Eph. 1:9, 11). God’s plan involves allthings that come to pass, including major and insignificant events,direct and indirect causes, things appointed and things permitted. Ittherefore encompasses both good and evil (Ps. 139:16; Prov. 16:4;Isa. 14:24–27; 22:11; 37:26–27; 46:9–10; Acts 2:23;4:27–28; Eph. 1:11; 2:10).
Theinclusion of evil in the plan of God does not mean that he condones,authorizes, or commits moral evil. The apostle John stresses that Godis light and that there is no darkness in him at all (1John1:5). He is absolutely holy and cannot be charged with the commissionof sin (Hab. 1:13). When addressing the topic of God’s plan andpurpose, the biblical authors are careful to distinguish betweendivine causation and human responsibility. Both fall under thepurview of God’s plan. There is divine certainty about whatwill happen, but moral agents are never under compulsion to commitevil (see Acts 4:28; Rom. 9:11; 1Cor. 2:7; 11:2; Heb. 2:5,10–16; 1Pet. 1:2, 20; 2Pet. 3:17). For example,when Luke refers to the greatest miscarriage of justice in thehistory of the world, the crucifixion of Christ, he indicates that itwas predestined by God, but the moral turpitude of the act isattributed to “wicked men” (Acts 2:23). The dual natureof such events is aptly reflected in Joseph’s statement to hisbrothers who sold him into slavery: “You meant evil against me,but God meant it for good” (Gen. 50:20 NASB).
Whereasthe all-encompassing plan of God relates to his sovereign controlover all things, predestination appears to be restricted primarily tocertain divine decisions affecting humans, angels, and the Messiah(Isa. 42:1–7; Acts 2:23; 1Tim. 5:21; 1Pet. 1:20;2:4). With reference to humans, Paul states, “In him we werealso chosen, having been predestined according to the plan of him whoworks out everything in conformity with the purpose of his will”(Eph. 1:11). Some scholars limit predestination to those things “inhim,” thus linking this work of God to his purpose insalvation. Others argue that the following phrase, “who worksout everything in conformity with the purpose of his will,”demonstrates that all things fall under the purview of God’scontrolling and guiding purpose (Eph. 1:11). It seems best to see thephrase “in him” as indicating the sphere in whichbelievers are chosen and the term “predestinated” as onecrucial aspect of the greater plan of God.
Divineforeknowledge and election. Sometheologians argue that election and predestination are merely basedupon God’s foreknowledge of those who will believe in him.Although God surely knows all those who will believe, the term“foreknowledge” connotes much more than simply knowingahead of time who will come to faith. It means that God hassovereignly chosen to know some individuals in such an intimate waythat it moved him to predestine them to eternal life (Rom. 8:29).Whereas the term “election” refers to God’ssovereign choice of those individuals, “predestination”looks forward toward the goal of that selection. Both predestinationand election occur in eternity past (Eph. 1:4–5).
Thepurpose of predestination. Whereaselection refers to God’s choice of individuals, predestinationlooks toward the purpose and goal of that choice. NT believers aredesignated as chosen by God and appointed to eternal life (Acts13:48; Eph. 1:4). The express purpose is that they be adopted as hischildren (Eph. 1:5) and, as beloved children, become “conformedto the image of his Son” (Rom. 8:29). The idea is that thosewhom God has chosen are predestined in view of the purpose that hedesires to fulfill in them, that of becoming his children who areconformed to the image of his Son. The ultimate purpose behind thisplan is to bring glory to God (Eph. 1:5–6, 11–12).
Predestinationand Reprobation
Inhis plan, God has chosen some individuals, nations, groups, andangels to fulfill special purposes, implying that other individuals,nations, groups, and angels have not been selected for those samepurposes (2Thess. 2:13; 2Tim. 2:10; 1Pet. 1:2).With regard to God’s choice in salvation, this has led sometheologians to argue that those not chosen for salvation are bydefault chosen for eternal damnation. They maintain thatpredestination applies not only to individuals whom God plans tosave, but also to those whom he does not plan to save (Prov. 16:4;Matt. 26:23–24; Rom. 9:10–13, 17–18, 21–22;2Tim. 2:20; 1Pet. 2:8; 2Pet. 2:3, 9; Jude 4; Rev.13:8; 20:15). This is sometimes called “reprobation.” Thebelief in the combined concepts of election and reprobation has beencalled “double predestination.”
Whilesome scholars in the history of the church have argued that God isjust as active in determining the reprobate as he is the elect,others have pointed out that God’s condemnation of the nonelectis based solely upon their sin and unbelief. A real distinctionexists in the level of divine involvement with regard to the destinyof one class as compared with the other. God does not appear to havethe same relationship to every event or thing in his creation. Thedegree of divine causation in each case differs. Scripture recognizesa difference between God’s direct working and his permissivewill. In this view, God directly chooses some to be saved; however,he does not choose the others to be damned but rather passes them by,allowing them to continue on their own way and eventually suffer thejust punishment that their sins deserve.
Whicheverview one takes, it seems that the Scripture does not teachreprobation in the same way it teaches predestination leading toeternal life. Whereas the assignment to eternal death is a judicialact taking into account a person’s sin, predestination untoeternal life is purely an act of God’s sovereign grace andmercy not taking into account any actions by those chosen. Carryingthe teaching of reprobation to the extreme threatens to view God ascapricious, which clearly is not scriptural (1John 1:5).
Predestinationand Human Responsibility
Godwas in no way obligated or morally impelled to choose or predestineanyone to eternal life. His determination not to choose everyone inno way impinges upon his holy and righteous character (Rom. 9:13). Onthe contrary, justice would demand that all receive the punishmentthat they have rightly earned for their sins (Rom. 3:23; 6:23).Therefore, the predestination of some to become like his Son requiredthat God exercise grace and mercy in providing for the cleansing oftheir sin, which he accomplished through the sacrifice of his belovedSon, Jesus Christ (Acts 2:23).
God’spredetermined plan does not force individuals to respond inpredetermined ways, either to accept him or to reject him. In the onecase, the sinner is drawn by God to himself but must also choose toplace trust in Christ (John 6:37, 44). Even in the radicalintervention of God in the life of Saul on the road to Damascus,where the divine call was indeed overpowering, Saul was givenopportunity to respond either positively or negatively. In the caseof those who are headed for eternal judgment, God’s working isnot fatalistic or mechanistic in the sense that a person may want tochoose God but God’s predetermined plan will not allow such aresponse. To the contrary, all are invited to come to Christ (Matt.11:28; John 3:16). The apostle John clarifies, “Whoever comesto me I will never drive away” (John 6:37 [cf. Matt. 11:28]).Those who do not come to God refuse to do so by their own volition(Matt. 23:37; John 5:40). They are not merely unable to come to Godbut unwilling to do so (John 5:40; 6:65; Rom. 3:11). The NT teachesthat Christ died for their sins (John 3:16), pleadingly warns them torepent, and cites their transgressions as the reason for theircondemnation (1Pet. 2:8; 2Pet. 2:21–22; Jude 8–16).When all aspects of the issue are considered, there is indeed amystery that lies outside the boundaries of our comprehensionregarding God’s sovereign working and human choice.
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1. Growing In Grace
Illustration
James Packer
I am the least of the apostles. 1 Cor15:9
I am the very least of all the saints. Eph3:8
I am the foremost of sinners. 1 Tim1:15
Humility and a passion for praise are a pair of characteristics which together indicate growth in grace. The Bible is full of self-humbling (man bowing down before God) and doxology (man giving praise to God). The healthy heart is one that bows down in humility and rises in praise and adoration. The Psalms strike both these notes again and again. So too, Paul in his letters both articulates humility and breaks into doxology. Look at his three descriptions of himself quoted above, dating respectively from around A.D. 59, 63, and 64. As the years pass he goes lower; he grows downward! And as his self-esteem sinks, so his rapture of praise and adoration for the God who so wonderfully saved him rises.
Undoubtedly, learning to praise God at all times for all that is good is a mark that we are growing in grace. One of my predecessors in my first parochial appointment died exceedingly painfully of cancer. But between fearful bouts of agony, in which he had to stuff his mouth with bedclothes to avoid biting his tongue, he would say aloud over and over again: "I will bless the Lord at all times; his praise shall continually be in my mouth" (Ps. 34:1). That was a passion for praise asserting itself in the most poignant extremity imaginable.
Cultivate humility and a passion for praise if you want to grow in grace.
2. AMAZING GRACE
Illustration
John H. Krahn
God’s grace is amazing in the lives of all his people. For even the most righteous man falls painfully short of the perfection that God requires of those who will be with him in heaven. The Bible says that at the end of time only those without any sin, none at all, will be able to stand in God’s presence. This causes us problems, big problems, for none of us qualifies.
If I were to ask you whether you were sure of your salvation, I wonder if every one of you could honestly say, "When I die, I feel certain that I would be with God in heaven." Anyone who loves the Lord and cannot state that conviction does not understand how amazing God’s grace really is.
The reason that many of us are uncertain about eternal life is because we are so aware of our faults, and we believe that we must somehow do better before we can come to God and receive complete forgiveness. We think that we must change, keep the Ten Commandments, not get angry so easily, and a hundred other things.
Those of us who feel that way are heading down a dead end street - we’ll never make it to heaven under our own recognizance. Instead we must recognize that we need help and lots of it. We need to tap into God’s unconditional love. A love that inexplicably hangs in with us even when we spurn it again and again. A love that accepts us in spite of our faults. One that flowed from the lips of a crucified rabbi when he said, "Father forgive them for they know not what they do."
God’s grace is tough love - no slushy sentimentality - love that flows out of the cross where all demands of justice were met. God’s grace through Jesus Christ provides us a place to stand where we do not need to try to do what we can’t do anyway, that is, make things right with God by our own efforts.
God’s good news for us today is that we are accepted. We have been accepted by that which is greater than we. We did nothing to earn that acceptance - nor can we do anything to merit it.
We must simply accept the fact that we are accepted. And when we do, we can then experience God’s amazing grace. Grace is God’s gift of acceptance that becomes ours by faith.
I can’t believe for you, you must do it for yourself. God’s grace can only become amazing for you when you accept the fact that you are accepted.
3. The Forgiveness Business
Illustration
Brian Stoffregen
I have frequently quoted Robert Capon's comments that the church is not in the morals business. The world does a pretty good job of that. What the world can't get right is the forgiveness business which is the church's proper job.
From a slightly different angle, he writes in Between Noon and Three: Morality, by its very nature, must be concerned with norms, with standards; whereas grace, by definition, is concerned with persons: it is a refusal to allow the standards to become the basis of their reconciliation or condemnation. Thus the conflict: morality tells you the standard you need to meet in order to be properly alive; grace tells you that all you ultimately need is to be dead – which is either the world's lowest standard or no standard at all.
Grace and morality, therefore, are two different kettles of fish. Morality deals with virtue and vice, with what is strengthening or weakening for human nature considered as an operational possibility. Grace, however, deals with sin, with a condition in which human nature has ceased to be an operational possibility and has ended up a lost cause. Grace is, to say it once again, about raising the dead. In the Bible the opposite of sin is not virtue; it is faith – faith in God who raises the dead.
All this talk about morality, therefore, is misleading. When we get far enough into it we begin to convince ourselves that the preaching of the moral law will, if done energetically enough, lead people to lead good lives and so make them more like what they ought to be. But that's not biblical. St. Paul says that the purpose of the law was not to do that at all, but to bring us to the awareness of sin. We sit here talking as if proper moral instruction to fifteen-year-olds will somehow keep them clear of sin. But St. Paul says that Scripture has concluded – locked up – all under sin, that the promise by faith of Jesus Christ might be given to them that believe. [pp. 157-8]
The goal of our preaching is not more moral behaviors, but forgiveness. I have often said that the primary purpose of sermons is absolution. While there may be instructions, and illustrations, and jokes, etc., if the forgiveness of sins through Jesus is not proclaimed in some way, I think that the sermon (and the church) has failed in its God-given purpose.
4. Forgiving As God Forgives
Illustration
Scott Hoezee
Someone once said that the scariest, most sobering word in the entire New Testament is that tiny little word "as." "Forgive us our sins as we forgive those who sin against us." That vital connection between God's abiding forgiveness of us and of our in turn forgiving others tells us that we must forgive. This is not some weird demand on God's part, however. This is not some hoop we must jump through to earn our salvation or to perform like some trained dog just because God enjoys watching us do tricks.
No, the reason for the connection between God's forgiving us and our forgiving others is because of the sheer power of God's forgiveness. It is so great that it simply must and will change us. The reason God expects us to forgive as a result of our being forgiven is the same reason you can expect to be wet after diving into Lake Michigan: water is wet and when you immerse yourself in it, you get wet. So also with forgiving grace: grace is magnetic and beautiful. When God immerses you in grace and saves your life eternally by it, you will be dripping with grace yourself. You will be full of grace and truth and so spread it to others.
5. Do As You Please
Illustration
Michael Horton
The radical gospel of grace as it is found throughout Scripture, has always had its critics. Jimmy Swaggart once said that by trusting in God's justifying and preserving grace, we would end up living a life of sin before long and thus, lose our salvation and be consigned to hell. Paul anticipated that reaction from the religious community of his own day after he said, "Where sin abounded, grace abounded much more" (Romans 5:20, NKJV). So he asked the question he expected us to ask: "Shall we continue in sin that grace may abound?" (6:1) Should we sin so that we can receive more grace? In other words, "If people believed what you just said in Romans 5, Paul, wouldn't they take advantage of the situation and live like the dickens, knowing they were 'safe and secure from all alarm'?" That's a fair question. But it reveals a basic misunderstanding of the nature of God's saving grace. Paul's response is unmistakable: "Certainly not? How shall we who died to sin live any longer in it?" (Romans 6:2, NKJV).
Someone confronted Martin Luther, upon the Reformer's rediscovery of the biblical doctrine of justification, with the remark, "If this is true, a person could simply live as he pleased!"
"Indeed!" answered Luther. "Now, what pleases you?"
Augustine was the great preacher of grace during the fourth and fifth centuries. Although his understanding of the doctrine of justification did not have the fine-tuned precision of the Reformers, Augustine's response on this point was similar to Luther's. He said that the doctrine of justification led to the maxim, "Love God and do as you please." Because we have misunderstood one of the gospel's most basic themes, Augustine's statement looks to many like a license to indulge one's sinful nature, but in reality it touches upon the motivation the Christian has for his actions. The person who has been justified by God's grace has a new, higher, and nobler motivation for holiness than the shallow, hypocritical self-righteousness or fear that seems to motivate so many religious people today.
6. The Pauline Salutation
Illustration
At least a dozen of the twenty-seven New Testament books of our Bible were written by one man, the Apostle Paul. These books are in the form of letters written to his fellow-Christians, giving them instruction and encouragement. There is one sentence which appears in everything Paul wrote, in each of his epistles. It is this: "Grace be to you and peace from God our Father and from the Lord Jesus Christ."
Paul always used this salutation in greeting the people he loved and cared about. And it is altogether appropriate for us as we meet and greet one another. I suppose each of us has some wish for the well-being of all the others, and of all the wishes we may wish for one another, perhaps none is more fitting than this one - the wish for the grace and peace of God.
So today I would borrow that warm and personal word of the Apostle, and by means of it greet you and welcome you to the experience we share in this hour: "Grace be to you and peace from God our Father and from the Lord Jesus Christ." Nothing can better express what we hope will result from our worship here - that in each heart there will be peace and, for the needs of each of our lives, the grace of God.
7. If We Miss a Deadline
Illustration
King Duncan
A tough, old cowhand sauntered into a saloon and began drinking whiskey by the bottle. The more he drank, the more unruly he became, shooting holes in the ceiling and floor. Everybody was afraid to take on the old cowhand. Finally, a short, mild-mannered storekeeper walked up to the unruly cowhand and said, "I'll give you five minutes to get out of town." The old cowhand holstered his gun, pushed the whiskey bottle away, briskly walked out, got on his horse, and rode out of town. When he left, someone asked the storekeeper what he would have done if the unruly cowhand had refused to go. "I'd have extended the deadline," he said.
Many Christians have that concept of God: if we miss a deadline, God will simply extend it. They do not take the judgment of God seriously. "I sin, God forgives," is their attitude. They wallow in what Dietrich Bonhoeffer calls "cheap grace." Grace is not cheap. Grace can be understood only as it stands in relief of God's judgment. God examines us and finds us unfit, unprepared for the wedding feast. But by faith in Jesus Christ - Christ, who gave himself for the expiation of our sins - we are made recipients of God's unconditional acceptance of us as worthy, fully dressed. But that grace has been dearly purchased. Our sins are serious business. It is only because of God's great love for us that God forgives us of our sins and dresses us in new, more appropriate clothes.
8. Walking on the Moon Doesn't Compare
Illustration
King Duncan
For Christians, Zion is that city of God which is heaven. And again, when we enter that place of eternal promise, there will be singing. For those of us who know Christ's love in our hearts, there is a need to say thank you to God for what God has done for us.
Charles Duke, a former astronaut, came to Christ some years after walking on the moon. After his time with NASA he had lacked purpose and meaning in his life. His wife, Dottie, was also troubled. In fact, she contemplated suicide. But then she began to attend church where she gave her life to Christ. Sometime later at his wife's Bible study Charles Duke gave his life to Jesus as well. He found a new and compelling purpose for his life. Today he offers this comment on his conversion, "Walking on the moon cannot compare with walking on earth with Jesus."
When you feel like that you want to sing. Music allows us to express our joy and thanksgiving.
9. Didn’t You Hear the Bells?
Illustration
Keith Wagner
A blind man was invited to attend the wedding of a friend. The couple had chosen to be married in a village church that was known for its picturesque qualities. As the couple left the chapel, the mother of the groom said to the blind man, "What a pity that you couldn't see the chapel. It really is so lovely. And such a pretty garden." She later repeated this to some mutual friends at the reception. The blind man just shrugged his shoulders each time and changed the subject. He thought to himself, "didn't she hear the bells?" For him, the bells that had rung before and after the ceremony had been magnificent. He was astonished at their tones and the patterns that they made. For him they had created an atmosphere of joy and sacredness. The blind man finally concluded that the mother of the groom may have seen the lovely chapel but she missed the sound of the bells. With all her senses she had only experienced part of the beauty.
Zacchaeus was blinded by his selfishness, but that did not keep Jesus from seeing him as a whole person. Jesus wanted to stay with Zacchaeus. To miss this part of the story is to remain in the dark. Jesus had to go to his house because this represented what Jesus was all about; giving grace toward those who are lost. In the gospel of Luke, Zacchaeus became the symbolic recipient of the grace of God toward lost humanity. There is no limit to God's grace. There is even hope for the greedy and powerful. By staying with Zacchaeus, Jesus demonstrated that the grace of God extends to everyone, especially the lost.
10. A Warm Welcome
Illustration
Beth Quick
My mother shared with me an email she received with this "Affirmation for Today", by an unknown author. In part it reads, "Today I will find the grace to let go of resentments of others and self-condemnation over past mistakes. Today I will not try to change, or improve, anybody but me. Today I will act toward others as though this will be my last day on earth. Today I will be unafraid. I will enjoy what is beautiful, and I will believe that as I give to the world, the world will give to me." As children of God, we can trust that we can find our grace, freely offered, by God who loves us so much. Full of faith, full of grace, we can begin to give - give to God, give to our church, give to our families, give to our neighbors, rejoicing in the love of God that knows no bounds.
11. His Grace IS Sufficient
Illustration
J. Oswald Sanders
When he was a young married man, Prebendary Webb-Peploe, a noted British preacher, took his little family to the seaside for a holiday. One of his little children was drowned. He returned to the city devastated with grief. In his distress he knelt at the desk in his study and poured out his grief before God. He pleaded with God to make His grace sufficient for him in his deep need. But no comfort came. The sense of desolation was still as acute as ever.
Through his tears, he looked up at the familiar text on the wall above the mantelpiece, but now with a new interest. The text was: “My grace IS sufficient for thee” (2 Corinthians 12:9). For the first time he noticed that the IS was printed in large letters. Light dawned. “Lord, here have I been asking you to make your grace sufficient for me in my loss, and all the time you have been telling me that it IS sufficient. I now appropriate for myself your sufficient grace.” His act of faith was immediately rewarded. Although the sense of loss was no less, the compensating comfort of God flooded his heart and he had peace.
12. Wait on the Lord
Illustration
James Packer
Grace is God drawing sinners closer and closer to him. How does God in grace prosecute this purpose? Not by shielding us from assault by the work, the flesh, and the devil, nor by protecting us from burdensome and frustrating circ*mstance, not yet by shielding us from troubles created by our own temperament and psychology, but rather by exposing us to all these things, so as to overwhelm us with a sense of our own inadequacy, and to drive us to cling to him more closely.
This is the ultimate reason, from our standpoint, why God fills our lives with troubles and perplexities of one sort and another it is to ensure that we shall learn to hold him fast. The reason why the Bible spends so much of its time reiterating that God is a strong rock, a firm defense, and a sure refuge and help for the weak is that God spends so much of his time showing us that we are weak, both mentally and morally, and dare not trust ourselves to find or follow the right road. When we walk along a clear road feeling fine, and someone takes our arm to help us, likely we would impatiently shake him off; but when we are caught in rough country in the dark, with a storm brewing and our strength spent, and someone takes our arm to help us, we would thankfully lean on him. And God wants us to feel that our way through life is rough and perplexing, so that we may learn to lean on him thankfully. Therefore he takes steps to drive us out of self-confidence to trust in himself, to in the classic scriptural phrase for the secret of the godly man's life "wait on the Lord."
13. Undistracted and Committed
Illustration
Tim Zingale
There's a legend of a king who had one beautiful daughter. She had many offers of marriage, but she couldn't make up her mind. A romantic girl, she wanted a man who would love her more than he loved anything else.
Finally, she devised a way to test the love of her suitors. An announcement was made and sent throughout the kingdom that on a certain day, there would be a race. The winner of the race would marry the princess. The race was open to every man in the kingdom, regardless of his position. All that was required was that the man had to profess to love the princess more than he loved anything else.
On the chosen day, men rich and poor gathered for the race. Each professed wholehearted love for the princess. They gathered at the starting line, prepared to run the course of many miles that had been marked for the race. Each man was told that the princess waited at the finish line. Whoever reached her first could take her as his bride.
Just before the race was to begin, an announcement was made. The king, they were reminded, was a wealthy man with treasures gathered from all over the world. Not wanting any man to run in vain, it was announced, the king had liberally scattered some of his finest treasures along the course. Each runner was welcome to take as many as he liked.
The race was begun. Almost immediately, the runners began to come across great gems and bags of gold. There were necklaces and pendants and jewel encrusted cups and swords and knives. One by one, the runners, princes and paupers alike, turned aside to fill their pockets and carry off what treasures they could. Blinded by the immediate promise of wealth, they forgot the princess and all their professions of love.
All except one! He pressed on, ignoring what to him were trinkets when compared to incomparable beauty of the princess and the prospect of gaining her hand in marriage, finally crossing the finish line.
That is the way temptation works. It places things in our path meant to blind our eyes to the kind of life God wants us to live.
With God’s grace we can learn to avoid temptation, we can learn to walk away from those things that would be gods in our life. With God’s grace, we can keep our focus on Him and the love we have for Him. With God’s grace, we can turn to loving our neighbor. We can learn to love others instead of loving ourselves.
14. Where the Spirit Moves
Illustration
Donald B. Strobe
I once read something called "Deal's First Law of Sailing." It goes something like this: "The amount of wind will vary inversely with the number and experience of the people you have on board the sailboat." And the second law is like unto it: "No matter how strong the breeze when you leave the dock, once you have reached the farthest point from the port from which you started, the wind will die."
Those who have the hobby of sailing can attest to the validity of these "laws." In fact, the art of sailing is a good analogy for the receiving of God's grace. While sitting in a sailboat, have you ever tried to make the wind blow? It cannot be done. Neither can you, by your own efforts, cause God's grace to come upon you. While sailing, you are entirely at the mercy of the wind (along with your skill at capturing it). You may capture the wind in your sails for a time, but it can disappear suddenly, leaving you stranded in the middle of the lake, and, if you do not have a motor, too embarrassed to ask for a tow. Sailing is a humbling experience. You may use the wind to take you where you want to go for a time, but it can shift directions without warning. Sailing makes you aware of your dependency.
That's Jesus' message in John, Chapter Three. You cannot capture the grace of God, you can only receive it. God's Spirit moves where He wills, and the birth from above is just that: from above. It is the work of God's Spirit within us, not something we do for ourselves.
15. God's Unchanging Plan
Illustration
James Packer
Repenting means revising one's judgment and changing one's plan of action. God never does this; he never needs to, for his plans are made on the basis of a complete knowledge and control which extends to all things past, present, and future, so that there can be no sudden emergencies or unlooked-for developments to take him by surprise. "The counsel of the Lord stands for ever, the thoughts of his heart to all generations" (Ps. 33:11). What he does in time, he planned from eternity. And all that he planned in eternity, he carries out in time. And all that he has in his Word committed himself to do, will infallibly be done. Thus we read of the "unchangeable character of his purpose" to bring believers into full enjoyment of their promised inheritance, and of the immutable oath by which he confirmed his counsel to Abraham, the archetypal believer, both for Abraham's own assurance and also for others (Heb. 6:17-19). So it is with all God's announced intentions. They do not change. No part of his eternal plan changes.
It is true that there is a group of texts (Gen. 6:6-8; 1 Sam. 15:11; 2 Sam. 24:16; Joel 2:13-14; Jon. 3:10) which speak of God as repenting. The reference in each case is to a reversal of God's previous treatment of particular men, consequent upon their reaction to that treatment. But there is no suggestion that this reaction was not foreseen, or that it took God by surprise, and was not provided for in his eternal plan. No change in his eternal purpose is implied when he begins to deal with a person in a new way.
16. Two Kinds of Life and Death
Illustration
John R. Brokhoff
Two Kinds of Life:The Greeks had two words for "life" and both appear in the New Testament. One is bios from which we get "biology." It refers to biological and physical life. It is not true life but mere existence. This is life in terms of quantity and extension. Methuselah, the oldest man in the Bible, had this kind of life. He lived 969 years, but there is no record of any contribution he made to the welfare of society.
The other Greek word is zoe. It is used to denote true life, the quality of life. It is spiritual life with God as the source of life. While bios is temporal, zoe is eternal. The one deals with the body and the other with the soul. But this eternal life also has quantity, for it extends through eternity. To distinguish this type of life from the former, the New Testament uses "eternal life."
Two Kinds of Death: As there are two kinds of life, there are two kinds of death. The bios type of life ends in physical death. The body declines, deteriorates, and dies. This is in accord with the natural order, for all living things die, including hom*o sapiens. If a human were only a physical body, the person would come to an end. In this case, death has the last word and is the ultimate victor over life.
There is another kind of death. The Bible speaks of death in terms of separation from God. "The soul that sins shall die" (Ezekiel 18:4). Sin is the dreadful agent that separates us from God. To be apart from God, from life, love, joy, and peace, is to be dead. Does this mean that the soul is exterminated or extinguished? If so, there would be a merciful nothingness. However, the Bible teaches that a soul apart from God, living in death, is in hell, a state of misery. Paul describes the condition in hell: "They shall suffer the punishment of eternal destruction and exclusion from the presence of the Lord and from the glory of his might" (2 Thessalonians 1:9). As there is eternal life, there is also everlasting death. It is to save us from this fate that God gave his Son to die for us and to reinstate us with God in whom we have eternal life. The scriptures repeatedly assure us that God does not want a single soul to perish or to be lost or to go to hell. In Christ, God the Father gave his very self to prevent people from going to everlasting death.
17. Spite Houses
Illustration
Billy D. Strayhorn
There once was a millionaire who owned a lot in an exclusive residential area of New York City. This particular lot presented a very unusual problem. The lot was five feet wide and about a hundred feet long. He couldn't do anything with such an odd sized lot, so he decided to sell it one of the neighbors on either side. But when he went to the neighbors, they didn't want to give him anything for it. They basically said, "Look, you can't build on it and you can't sell it to anyone else. So take our offer or leave it." The millionaire was so angered by their refusal and rebuttal that he decided to get even.
He hired an architect and a contractor, and had a house designed for that weird shaped lot. It was five feet wide and ran the entire length of the property. He moved in and set up house in this narrow house. Each room was barely wide enough for a single piece of furniture. His hatred for the people on either side of this small lot made him decide to ruin the look of the entire area.
The neighbors complained that it was a blight to the neighborhood. But the city fathers couldn't find any code forbidding it. This millionaire moved into it, and lived there the rest of his life. The only one who was really punished was him. He moved into a long narrow little house that held only hate and discomfort. The house became known throughout the neighborhood as "Spite House." It still stands to day as a monument to one man's hatred.
When I first read that story, I thought, surely this is an exaggeration. So, I did some research trying to find out whether this was a true story or just one of those myths that has been passed on. Not only did I find out that it was true. I found out the man's name. But what was even more shocking is the fact that I found no less than eight other "Spite Houses" in a simple search online.
There's one in Carlsbad, New Mexico, built to block the Mayor's view and annoy him. There are two in San Francisco; One at Deadman's Point, Maine; one in Huntsville, Alabama; one in Boston, one that is supposed to be haunted and has been turned into a Bed & Breakfast in Fredrick, Maryland; and a triangle shaped "Spite House" in Montlake, Washington, a suburb of Seattle.
Our passage today from the Gospel of Matthew is the parable of the ungrateful servant. It's story about our debt of sin. It's about God's free and redeeming grace. It's also about anger and spite, and the judgment that follows an unforgiving spirit. Let's look at the passage.
Note: This story is essentially true but the reasons for construction are a little different:The Richardson Spite House, as it is known, in New York City at Lexington Avenue and 82nd Street was built in 1882 and demolished in 1915. It was four stories tall, 104 feet (31.7 m) wide, and only five feet (1.5 m) deep. Joseph Richardson, the owner of the plot, built it after the owner of an adjacent plot, Hyman Sarner, unsuccessfully tried to purchase the land. Sarner considered the plot useless by itself and offered only $1000; Richardson demanded $5000. After the deal fell through, Richardson had an apartment building constructed on his land. It was a functional (albeit impractical) apartment building with eight suites, each consisting of three rooms and a bath.
A Spite House is a building constructed or substantially modified to irritate neighbors or any party with land stakes. Because long-term occupation is not the primary purpose of these houses, they frequently sport strange and impractical structures.
18. Grace Knows No Conditions
Illustration
Michael P. Green
Dr. H. A. Ironside in his book In the Heavenlies (Neptune, N.J.: Loizeau Bros., Inc.) tells the story of an attempted assassination of the first Queen Elizabeth of England. The woman who sought to do so dressed as a male page and secreted herself in the queen’s boudoir, awaiting the convenient moment to stab the queen to death. She did not realize that the queen’s attendants would be very careful to search the rooms before Her Majesty was permitted to retire. They found the woman hidden there among the gowns and brought her into the presence of the queen, after confiscating the poniard that she had hoped to plant into the heart of the sovereign.
The would-be assassin realized that her case, humanly speaking, was hopeless. She threw herself down on her knees and pleaded and begged the queen as a woman to have compassion on her, a woman, and to show her grace. Queen Elizabeth looked at her coldly and quietly said, “If I show you grace, what promise will you make for the future?” The woman looked up and said, “Grace that hath conditions, grace that is fettered by precautions, is not grace at all.” Queen Elizabeth caught the idea in a moment and said, “You are right; I pardon you of my grace.” And they led her away, a free woman.
History tells us that from that moment Queen Elizabeth had no more faithful, devoted servant than that woman who had intended to take her life. That is exactly the way the grace of God works in the life of an individual—he or she becomes a faithful servant of God.
Note: Perhaps this is a fanciful illustration on the part of Dr. Ironside. We were not able to substantiate any parts of this story.
19. Blasphemy Against the Spirit
Illustration
Staff
This statement (Matt 12:32, par Mk. 3:29, Luke 12:10) has been the subject of much questioning. Obviously the reference here is not to the naming of the Holy Spirit in a blasphemous utterance, for in Matt. 12:32 even blasphemy against the Son of man can be forgiven. Among the many attempts at exegesis, the most convincing is the suggestion that the man who blasphemes against the Holy Spirit is he who has recognized that God is working through the Holy Spirit in the actions of Jesus, and who quite consciously "misrepresent faith in God as faith in the devil. This saying is an extremely serious warning against the demonic and scarcely conceivable potential in man: To declare war on God. This is not done in weakness and doubt, but by one who has been overcome by the Holy Spirit and who knows very well on whom he is declaring war" (E. Schweizer, The Good News according to Mark, 1971, 87; cf. H.W. Beyer, TDNT I:624; O.E. Evans, "The Unforgivable Sin", ExpT 68, 1956-57, 240-44). This is the blasphemer who does it deliberately, after encounter with the God of grace, as the context shows. For Jesus has just been accused of casting out demons by Beelzebul, the prince of demons. "Therefore he who blasphemes the Spirit is no longer speaking against a God who is distant, about whom he entertains mere foolish thoughts, but against the one who makes evident to him his gracious work, and confirms it with his manifest, divine seal. He is a man who ought to give thanks, not to blaspheme" (A. Schlatter, on Matt. 12:32).
W.L. Lane draws attention to Sifre on Deut. 32:38 (end): "The Holy One, blessed be he, pardons everything else, but on profanation of the Name [i.e. blasphemy] he takes vengeance immediately" (The Gospel of Mark, NLC, 1974, 145) Lane goes on to comment: "This is the danger to which the scribes exposed themselves when they attributed to the agency of Satan the redemption brought by Jesus. The expulsion of demons was a sign of the intrusion of the Kingdom of God. Yet the scribal accusations against Jesus amount to a denial of the power and greatness of the Spirit of God. By assigning the action of Jesus to a demonic origin the scribes betray a perversion of spirit which, in defiance of the truth, chooses to call light darkness. In this historical context, blasphemy against the Holy Spirit denotes the conscious and deliberate rejection of the saving power and grace of God released through Jesus' work and act" (ibid). Thus blasphemy here is much more serious than the taking of the divine name in vain which a believer may have done before coming to repentance and faith.
It may be said to those who have been tormented by fear that they have committed the unforgivable sin that their concern is itself a sign that they have not committed the sin envisaged in Jesus' teaching here. Lane's interpretation also helps to explain the distinction drawn between blasphemy against the Son of man and blasphemy against the Holy Spirit. The distinction suggests that "while an attack on Jesus' own person, as son of Man and therefore 'hidden', is pardonable, any speaking against the power by which he works (i.e. the divine endowment for his messianic ministry) will not be pardoned" (D. Hill, The Gospel of Matthew, New Century Bible, 1972, 318). For such an action would be deliberately to attribute to Satan the action of God himself. (NIDNTT, v. 3, pp. 343-344)
What is blasphemy against the Holy Spirit? Though many suggestions have been offered, I think the answer lies in the context here (Luke 12:7-12) and in the context of redemptive history. Remember that the Holy Spirit had not yet been poured out, and it is the Spirit who causes men to recognize who Jesus is. Hebrews 6 and 10 contain discussions of unforgivable sins, but the distinction between blasphemy against Christ and the Spirit has disappeared. Jesus seemed to be saying this: Because the Holy spirit has not yet been poured out in fullness, the Jews will be forgiven for blaspheming the Son of Man. They will be given a second chance to repent, as we see in the book of Acts. If, however, they continue to blaspheme after the Spirit has come, they will not be forgiven. But what is the sin, specifically? Since it is blasphemy, we must see it essentially as a verbal sin. In context it is the sin of saying that Jesus Christ is of the devil. Jesus was willing to excuse this blasphemy before Pentecost; but, in the new covenant era it is not longer excusable. If a person curses Jesus, but does not really know who Jesus is, that sin is forgivable. But if the Holy Spirit has borne witness to a person that Jesus is indeed the Son of God, and that person curses Him, it cannot be forgiven.
20. A Lifetime to Prepare
Illustration
King Duncan
There is an old legend about a man who had a rather stupid servant. The master often got exasperated with his servant. One day in a fit of frustration he said to the servant, "You've got to be the stupidest man I've ever met. Look, I want you to take this staff and carry it with you. And if you ever meet a man stupider than you are, give him the staff." So the servant carried the staff. Often out in the marketplace he'd meet some pretty stupid people. But he was never sure they were worse off than he. Years passed with the servant carrying his staff. Then one day, he came back to the castle and was ushered into the bedroom of his master. His master was quite sick.
In the course of their conversation, the master said, "I'm going on a long journey." The servant said, "When do you plan to be back?" The master said, "This is a journey from which I'll not return." The servant said, "Sir, have you made all the necessary preparations?" The master said, "No, I have not." The servant said, "Could you have made preparations?" The master said, "Yes, I guess I've had my life to make them, but I've been busy about other things." The servant said "Master, you're going on a journey from which you'll never return, you could've prepared for it, and you just didn't?" The master said, "Yes, I guess that's right." The servant took the staff he'd carried so long and said, "Master take this with you. At last I've met a man more stupid than myself."
Could that be us? Could we be that foolish? I hope not. I surely hope not. Victory belongs to those who are prepared. Preparation is an essential characteristic of character. The most important preparation we can make is for eternity.
21. Peace in the Face of the Tempes
Illustration
Jesus does not promise to calm every storm in your life. Jesus does promise to calm you in every storm of life.
John Wesley could hardly have been called a faint-hearted stay-at-home. But there were times when even he lost his nerve. During one of Wesley's several Atlantic crossings, a frighteningly fierce storm broke out, pitching and tossing the ship about like a bathtub toy. While Wesley and others clung to their bunks and hid their heads, a community of Moravians, traveling to their new homeland, calmly gathered to hold their daily worship service and sing praises to God. Watching these Moravians, so apparently unperturbed by the howling winds and crashing waves, Wesley realized he was witnessing a truly waterproof faith. From that moment on, John Wesley prayed that God would give him the ability to likewise ride out life's storms with as much confidence.
What made those Moravians so peaceful in the face of the tempest? It was the same trait that the disciples so woefully lacked in today's gospel text: an unquenchable trust in Jesus Christ. After stretching out his arms and stilling the storm, Jesus turned to his companions and chastised them. By cowardly cringing and crying out to Jesus in fear, they had revealed the shallowness of their faith. Although they had been specially chosen as Jesus' fellow travelers on this journey, they missed the boat.
22. Amen: A Most Remarkable Word
Illustration
Staff
The word "amen" is a most remarkable word. It was transliterated directly from the Hebrew into the Koine Greek of the New Testament, then into Latin and into English and many other languages, so that it is practically a universal word. It has been called the best-known word in human speech. The word is directly related in fact, almost identical to the Hebrew word for "believe" (aman), or "faithful." Thus, it came to mean "sure" or truly," an expression of absolute trust and confidence. When one believes God, he indicates his faith by an "amen." When God makes a promise, the believer's response is "amen" "so it will be!" In the New Testament, it is often translated "verily" or "truly." When we pray according to His Word and His will, we know God will answer, so we close with an "amen," and so also do we conclude a great hymn or anthem of praise and faith.
The word is even a title of Christ Himself. The last of His letters to the seven churches begins with a remarkable salutation by the glorified Lord: "These things saith the Amen, the faithful and true witness, the beginning of the creation of God" (Revelation 3:14). We can be preeminently certain that His Word is always faithful and true, because He is none other than the Creator of all things, and thus He is our eternal "Amen." As our text reminds us, every promise of God in Christ is "yea and amen," as strong an affirmation of truth as can be expressed in the Greek language.
It is, therefore, profoundly meaningful that the entire Bible closes with an "amen." "The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you all. Amen" (Revelation 22:21), assuring everyone who reads these words that the whole Book is absolutely true and trustworthy. Amen!
23. IN THE PROVERBIAL PITS
Illustration
John H. Krahn
Most of us think we are pretty good - not worthy of going to hell. In commercials we are told to use a variety of products. Why? Because we are worth it. Commercials and best-selling books discourage us from seeing ourselves in a negative light, unable to be in control over every situation in life - even over our life beyond life.
Therefore, if someone says to you, "Go to hell," it is an affront. The person who says such a thing infers that in his opinion you are not number one but that you are the pits. We have no right to say such a thing, for it is much like the pot calling the kettle black. Yet, when Jesus Christ returns to earth at the end of time, he will have to tell billions of people to "Go to hell." Why? Because all people are sinners and cannot save themselves. Until we recognize our sinfulness, we will never desire a savior. The problem is that we all think we’re pretty good people. Compared to what? - other sinners, maybe - but not to a righteous God.
And what is the Bible’s standard for salvation? Jesus told us when he said, "Be ye therefore perfect, even as my father in heaven is perfect." Perfection. One hundred percent is the only passing grade. God doesn’t grade on a curve. The Book of James puts it another way, "If we offend in one point we are guilty of all." If we commit just one sin, we step outside the realm of the law and become an outlaw. You don’t have to break every law in the book to be a criminal - just kill one person.
Sin is a "four-letter word" ... a dirty word, that will someday keep us out of heaven if left alone. It puts us in the proverbial pits. It is a cancer of the soul, and if left untreated, it brings everlasting death. I cannot imagine anything more awful than to stand before the Lord Jesus at the end of time, and have him say, "John, go to hell!" Satan works overtime to delude us into thinking that we are good enough to make it to heaven on our own. If we want to know how black and hideous our hearts are in the sight of God, we need only take a long look at the cross. God considered our sin so terrible and our lives so important that he sent his Son to the cross to die for us.
Heaven is a free gift and is not earned or deserved. Grace is God’s riches at Christ’s expense. People are sinners and cannot save themselves. Our sinful condition will lead to eternal death if left unchecked. If we accept God’s gift of forgiveness through Jesus Christ, we can have the confidence of everlasting life in heaven.
24. We Are the Sinners
Illustration
King Duncan
Rev. Randall D. Bell tells a powerful story about a pastor who stood in court beside a member of his congregation an individual who had been “out with the boys," and had too much to drink. As he was driving home on the rain‑soaked streets and through the dense fog, he turned a corner and heard a sickening clash of metal and breaking glass. Two young people lay dead. They had been thrown from their motorcycle. He was charged with manslaughter and driving under the influence. He sat in court trembling after days of testimony. The judge was about to speak. It could mean years of prison, loss of job, and poverty for his family. The judge spoke: The test for drunkenness had not been properly done; the motorcycle had no proper lights; the jury was ordered to render a not guilty verdict. All that was ominous and foreboding was now gone. He was a free man. The court declared him “not guilty." His family kissed him they could go on with their life, all because he had been declared innocent.
Then Rev. Bell adds these words, “Now maybe this story and the way it ended angers you, because you hurt over those young people who were killed. But know this you and I are that man. His story is our story. We are the sinner who finds himself in the presence of God the Eternal Judge. . . ."
You see, not only are we blinded by our prejudices toward people like the Samaritan woman with her unseemly lifestyle, we are also blinded to the fact that we are the Samaritan woman. We, too, have fallen short of the grace of God, but the hand of grace is reached out to us as well.
25. The Mediator
Illustration
Jonathan Edwards
The redeemed are dependent on God for all. All that we have wisdom, the pardon of sin, deliverance, acceptance in God's favor, grace, holiness, true comfort and happiness, eternal life and glory we have from God by a Mediator; and this Mediator is God. God not only gives us the Mediator, and accepts His mediation, and of His power and grace bestows the things purchased by the Mediator, but He is the Mediator. Our blessings are what we have by purchase; and the purchase is made of God; the blessings are purchased of Him; and not only so, but God is the purchaser. Yes, God is both the purchaser and the price; for Christ, who is God, purchased these blessings by offering Himself as the price of our salvation.
26. SERVANT, SERVITOR
Illustration
Stephen Stewart
Exodus 12:45 - "No sojourner or hired servant may eat of it."
2 Kings 4:43 - "But his servant said, ‘How am I to set this before a hundred men?’ ..."
A servant is a person of either sex who is in the service of another person, and the term does not necessarily mean that this servant is a domestic, in the sense that we use it today. In our usage, a servant is one who works for pay and in so doing attends to the physical needs, in one way or another, of the person who has employed him.
But this was not necessarily the designation in the ancient world. Rather, that concept would be more akin to "slave," which implies a forced labor, but is more in keeping with the type of work done by today’s servants. Rather, the ancient servant means merely someone who was in service to another, and this type of service was often of a high order. In that sense, then, any person under the king was a servant. For example, we have Eliezer, whose position in the household of Abraham compared with that of the prime niinister, hardly a menial position!
However, the servant had certain obligations, whatever his status or rank - he was under obligation to obey and to work for the benefit of his master, which is still not too far away from the idea of the hired workman of today. In return for his obedience and care, he received protection and reciprocal care.
The servitor, on the other hand, may correspond more to our modern concept of servant, since he was the one who served, or ministered to, another. However, again, we must not necessarily equate this with a menial position, although, of course, it could well have been one, and often was. But the point is that it did not have to be so. It may merely mean "one in waiting," or the person who is available to serve in whatever capacity is required. And that, too, is still true today.
27. The Christmas Promise: God with Us - Sermon Starter
Illustration
James W. Moore
G. K. Chesterton, the noted British poet and theologian, was a brilliant man who could think deep thoughts and express them well. However, he was also extremely absent-minded and over the years he became rather notorious for getting lost. He would just absolutely forget where he was supposed to be and what he was supposed to be doing. On one such occasion, he sent a telegram to his wife which carried these words: "Honey, seems I'm lost again. Presently, I am at Market Harborough. Where ought I to be?" As only a spouse could say it, she telegraphed back a one-word reply "HOME!"
This is precisely what this classic passage in the first chapter of Matthew does for us... it brings us home...
Home to the real meaning of Christmas
Home to the most magnificent truth in the entire Bible
Home to our Lord's greatest promise
Home to the reason we celebrate Christmas
Namely this: "GOD IS WITH US!" When we accept Christ into our lives, nothing, not even death, can separate us from God and His love. It is what Christmas is about. God is with us. The great people of faith have always claimed that promise. Just think of it:
Moses caught between the Pharaoh and the deep Red Sea in a seemingly hopeless situation believed that God was with him and he went forward and trusted God to open a way and He did!
Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego went into the fiery furnace into a seemingly hopeless situation and they trusted God to be with them and He was!
Little David stood before Goliath. What chance could a small boy with a slingshot have against this giant of a warrior? But David believed that God was with him and it made all the difference!
Now, it's interesting to note that when the writer of Matthew's gospel wanted to capture the meaning of Christmas, the meaning of the Christ event, the meaning of Jesus in a single word, he did a very wise thing. He reached back into the Old Testament, pulled out an old word, dusted it off, and used it to convey the message. The word was Emmanuel. That's what Jesus is about "His name shall be called Emmanuel" which means, "God is with us."
The impact of that Christmas promise is incredible. When you believe that, when you accept that, when you claim that promise it will absolutely change your life. Let me show you what I mean by bringing this closer to home. Let me underscore three ideas relating to this great promise of God's presence. I'm sure you will think of others, but for now please consider these. We can claim the great Christmas promise God with us...
1. When We Are Frightened.
2. When We Are Lonely.
3. When We Are in Sorrow.
28. God's Treasure
Illustration
John A. Stroman
Tom Long asks the question in his book Shepherds and Bathrobes: "Have you ever noticed where God placed his treasure on this earth?" The treasure is not gold, but gospel. Not silver, but good news. Not hard, cold cash, but grace, love, and peace. He points out that God could have left it with the politicians, those who are responsible for collecting taxes, building schools, and passing laws, but God didn't. God could have left this treasure with Zechariah, the high priest, but his unbelief took him out of the picture. Tom Long states that God left the treasure in the least likely of places: in the love, care, and nurture of a first century peasant woman chosen as the "handmaiden of the Lord." God's treasure was left with the most powerless figure in the ancient world. Doesn't that tell you something about God's grace in today's world?
29. New People, Not Just Nice People
Illustration
Wallace H. Kirby
C. S. Lewis once said that the gospel was concerned to create "new people" not just "nice people." The human need is an inner transformation that makes us into new creatures. It is the warmth of the spirit of Christ that accomplishes this. This is not something we can do for ourselves; it is the New Testament insistence upon grace and gift, not work and merit. We cannot make ourselves into the sort of persons who are recognizable as sons and daughters of God; the heart of the Christian testimony makes this clear. Not even a courageous and serious understanding of the first fire, Christ's judgment, can remedy our impoverishment before God. It takes the second fire of Christ's spirit to inspire and sustain the growth of love and grace within us.
30. Amazing Grace
Illustration
Richard J. Fairchild
John Newton, who wrote the hymn Amazing Grace back in 1779 certainly identified with the younger son, the son who wasted his inheritance. As a young man he left home and went to sea and there lived wildly and free. Like many people who abandon God, he was highly critical of the Christian faith, and spent much time tearing down the faith of the people he met as he went from place to place. It was only in later years that he realized that he had wasted his young life, and indeed not only wasted it - but in all that time he had been offensive to God and to all God-fearing people. And like the young prodigal, he repented and sought, in humility and submissiveness, to serve God for the rest of his days.
His resulting experience of God's forgiveness, of God's grace, is not only described well in the emotion packed words of the song he wrote, it is also to be found in his epitaph, an epitaph he himself wrote shortly before his death in 1807. He describes himself and his experience of God this way: "John Newton, clerk, once an infidel and libertine, was by the rich mercy of our Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ, preserved, restored, pardoned, and appointed to preach the faith he had long labored to destroy."
31. The End of the World
Illustration
Donald Dotterer
There is a beautiful valley in Switzerland which is deeply hidden in that mountain range known as the Alps. That valley is completely surrounded by steep mountain walls. If one enters this valley, that person will move along the only road until it ends at the base of a steep wall of rock.
The Swiss call this place the "End of the World." However, if one is willing to go climbing by foot, Swiss guides will show a determined hiker the path that leads up and over that mountain barrier.
Reflecting upon this natural phenomenon, Harleigh Rosenberger comments that many people believe that life is like a road that runs through the valley of time. "We cannot turn back but must continue walking onward. The days pass quickly and then comes the end of the road. We stand at the sheer rock wall we call death. It is the end of our world, for it is the end of life."
Because Jesus Christ has been raised from the dead and we have through him received the gift of eternal life, we find a way up and over that wall of rock. Jesus said, "I am the resurrection and the life; he who believes in me, though he die, yet shall he live, and whoever lives and believes in me shall never die (John 11:25)."
My friends in Christ, our hope is grounded in the gift of eternal life which we receive this day - it is our way out of the valley of darkness and despair through which all of us walk at one time or another in our lives. This gift of eternal life does not begin at death. It begins now for all who worship the risen Christ. This life eternal will then continue beyond the grave into the life to come, for our souls are eternal, and in Christ we become one with the Father who made us. This is the hope and the promise which we receive this glorious Easter Day.
32. A Story of Conversion
Illustration
Philip Schaff
John Chrysostom, known as the "the golden-mouthed" preacher of the 4th century, told the story of a remarkable conversion. The coastal city of Phoenice was well known for its lawlessness. Inparticular in the city was an actress who mesmerized many with her beauty but brought them low with her harlotry and the use of sorcery and drugs.
Chrysostom wrote, "And indeed nothing was more vile than she was, when she was on the stage." Yet remarkably, by the grace of God, this notable lady was suddenly converted. "But all at once, I know not how," he tells the story, "or rather I do know well, for it was being so minded, and converting, and bringing down upon herself God's grace, she despised all those things and having cast away the arts of the devils, mounted up to heaven." In the spirit of Romans 6, as she had given herself to all manner of sin as an unbeliever, now as a Christian, she devoted her all to the Lord Jesus Christ and His pleasure (Rom. 6:12-19). Her attire changed, as did her practices and the company that she kept. Her life of discipline and self-restraint demonstrated a transformed heart. For many years, she bowed only to her own authority over her soul, but upon meeting Jesus Christ through faith, the woman who once was a noted harlot became a radiant follower of Jesus Christ.[See: A Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, edited by Philip Schaff, vol. X, "Saint Chrysostom: Homilies on the Gospel of Saint Matthew," 412].
33. Tongues: A Gift from God
Illustration
Merrill F. Unger
There are two aspects in the manifestation of tongues: first, the sign of tongues in Acts 2, 10, 19 (and probably in Ch 8); second, the gift of tongues in the early apostolic church. The gift under the second aspect evidently was not permanent (1 Cor 13:9-13), nor given to every believer. It required the concomitant gift of interpretation (1 Cor 12:10; 14:1-40). This sign gift with interpretation was meant to instruct the church before the completed NT Scriptures were given. Under the first aspect tongues were a means by which the Holy Spirit witnessed to Israel on the day of Pentecost (2:4-13). They were a sign of the truth that Jesus was the Messiah and an indication of the new age of the Spirit. The Jews were again challenged by the Samaritans' receiving the Holy Spirit (Acts 8:14-17), and, although this is not specifically mentioned, they may have been given the evidence that the despised Samaritans had actually received the same gift as the Jews, by the sign of their supernatural utterances (cf. 11:17).
This is the use of tongues in the introduction of the gift of the Holy Spirit to Gentiles (Acts 10:44-47). Nothing could have been more convincing to skeptical, unbelieving Peter and his Jewish colleagues than the fact that Cornelius and the other Gentiles spoke in supernatural languages just as the Jews at Pentecost.
The disciples of John the Baptist who received the Holy Spirit and spoke in languages they had never learned (Acts 19:6-10) were a similar witness to the strong Jewish community at Ephesus. For the disciples of John the Baptist, whom the Jews generally accepted as a God-sent prophet, to be blessed by the Holy Spirit after being baptized in the name of the rejected Messiah, was of the deepest significance. 'But some of them [the Jews] became obstinate; they refused to believe' as Isaiah (Isa 28:11-12) had predicted (1 Cor 14:22).
34. A House of Prayer
Illustration
John R. Brokhoff
Leslie Weatherhead in his book, A Private House Of Prayer, suggests that the structure of the content of prayer be likened to a house of seven rooms. Each room is a division of prayer. There may be some duplication with ACTSS which we just discussed.
The first room is for the affirmation of God's presence. If prayer is a conversation with God, obviously it is necessary for him to be present. When we pray, are we aware of his presence or like Moses do we see only a burning bush? In a hymn Tersteegen sings, "God himself is present; let us now adore him and with awe appear before him." What applies to worship, applies also to prayer. When we pray, we are talking to a real person, not to an idea, or ideal, or ideology, or a theological concept. In prayer we are not talking to ourselves or to the ceiling. In spirit God is there to hear our prayer. We need to realize this and pray accordingly.
The next room is for the thanksgiving and praise. We have been blessed beyond measure and therefore to thank and praise God is in order. Before we begin our prayer, we need to review how good God has been to us. If we are bereft of blessings, our greatest gift is Jesus who loved us enough to die for us.
Go to the next room for the confession of sins. Sin separates us from God. Sin erects an impenetrable curtain which prevents us from seeing God. The separation prevents our hearing the voice of God. We come out of a dirty world with the dirt of sin clinging to us. Before we can be presentable to a holy God we need spiritual cleansing. Thus, in prayer we confess our sins and plead for his mercy.
The fourth room is labelled "Reception of God's grace." We have confessed our sins and begged for mercy. What is God's response? It is grace in terms of pardon and acceptance. At this time in our prayers we remember his promises to be with us always, to forgive us, and to bless us with the Holy Spirit.
Now it is time to go to the room of petition. We have the opportunity to tell God about our personal needs in our own lives, or in our family, or in our work. But, we have petitions not only for ourselves, but others want and need our prayers in their behalf. This takes us to the sixth room of prayer. When we pray for others, it is called intercessory prayer. When his co-worker, Melanchthon, was sick, Luther prayed for him: "I besought the Almighty with great vigor ... quoting from Scripture all the promises I could remember, that prayers should be granted and said that he must grant my prayer, if I was henceforth to put faith in his promises."
The effectiveness of a friend's prayer on our behalf depends on the relationship of the pray-er to God. James wrote, "The prayer of the righteous is powerful and effective" (James 5:16). That is why we want a godly mother or a pious pastor to pray for us. Roman Catholics ask the saints and the Virgin Mary to pray for them. On the eve of a historic boxing match, a friend was visiting the champ in his hotel suite. During the conversation a murmuring feminine voice was heard. "That's my wife," the champ explained. "She's praying for me to win." "Oh, and I suppose you pray, too?" The champ replied, "My wife is more devout than I am. If God won't do it for her, He certainly won't do it for me."
The seventh room in the house of prayer is meditation. Some do not understand what meditation is and consequently do not know how to meditate. It is the act of reflecting, of silence, and listening to God. It calls for thinking about God and our relationship to him. It is a time to review past dealings with God. Then we reflect on how good God has been in those past dealings. After that, we remember God's promises to us: promises of peace, protection, and provision. Meditation can be summed up in three R's: review, reflect, and remember.
35. You Need 100 Points
Illustration
Bill Bouknight
There is a story about a minister who had a strange dream. He dreamt that he had died and was trying to get into heaven. When he approached the pearly gates, St. Peter told him he needed 100 points to get in. Proudly the minister said, "Well, I was a pastor for 43 years.""Fine," said St. Peter, "That's worth one point." "One point? Is that all?" cried the minister. "Yes, that's it," said St. Peter.
"Well," said the pastor, "I visited lots of shut-ins." St.Peter responded, "That's worth one point." "I worked with young people," said the pastor. "That's worth one point," said St. Peter. "I developed a number of excellent Scout programs," said the minister. "That's worth one point," said St. Peter. "You have four points now. You need 96 more." "Oh no," said the minister in a panic. "I feel so helpless, so inadequate. Except for the grace of God, I don't have a chance." St. Peter smiled and said, "Grace of God that counts for 96 points. Come on in!"
There will be a final judgment. God's justice and our freedom of choice demand it. Every person will spend eternity in heaven or hell. Our passport to heaven is simple. It's just a matter of saying to God sincerely, "I am a sinner for whom Jesus died. I claim him by faith as Savior and Lord." If you haven't taken that step in faith, do it today! Do it now!
36. Are You a Believer?
Illustration
Max Lucado
Max Lucado, tells the following story with wit and style.
Some time ago I came upon a fellow on a trip who was carrying a Bible.
"Are you a believer?" I asked him.
"Yes," he said excitedly. I've learned you can't be too careful.
"Virgin birth?" I asked.
"I accept it."
"Deity of Jesus?"
"No doubt."
"Death of Christ on the cross?"
"He died for all people."
Could it be that I was face to face with a Christian? Perhaps. Nonetheless, I continued my checklist.
"Status of man." "Sinner in need of grace." "Definition of grace." "God doing for man what man can't do." Check Check Check Check.
"Return of Christ?" I asked.
"Imminent."
"Bible?"
"Inspired."
"The Church?"
"The Body of Christ."
I started getting excited. "Conservative or liberal?"
He was getting interested too. "Conservative."
My heart began to beat faster.
"Heritage?"
"Southern Congregationalist Holy Son of God Dispensationalist Triune Convention."
That was mine!
"Branch?"
"Pre-millennial, post-trib, non-charismatic, King James, one-cup communion."
My eyes misted. I had only one other question:"Is your pulpit wooden or fiberglass?"
"Fiberglass," he responded.
I withdrew my hand and stiffened my neck. "Heretic!" I said and walked away.
37. God Taking on Our Weakness
Illustration
Martin Luther
It is the nature of God that he makes something out of nothing. Consequently, if someone is not nothing, God can make nothing out of him. Men make something into something else. But this is vain and useless work. Thus God accepts no one except the abandoned, makes no one healthy except the sick, gives no one sight except the blind, brings no one to life except the dead, makes no one pious except sinners, makes no one wise except the foolish, and in short, has mercy upon no one except the wretched, and gives no one grace except those who have not grace. Consequently, no proud person can become holy, wise or righteous, become the material with which God works, or have God's work in him, but he remains in his own works and makes a fabricated, false and simulated saint out of himself, that is a hypocrite.
38. Win a Little, Lose a Bunch
Illustration
David Barrett
Several centuries ago one of the popes, an avid patron of the arts, is said to have surveyed the vast artistic riches he had amassed and to have gloated: "No longer can the church of Jesus Christ say, 'Silver and gold have I none."' And a subordinate replied, "But then neither can she now say, 'Rise up and walk."'
39. Safe from Sin-Hounds
Illustration
E. Lutzer
In the 14th century, Robert Bruce of Scotland was leading his men in a battle to gain independence from England. Near the end of the conflict, the English wanted to capture Bruce to keep him from the Scottish crown. So they put his own bloodhounds on his trail. When the bloodhounds got close, Bruce could hear their baying. His attendant said, "We are done for. They are on your trail, and they will reveal your hiding place."
Bruce replied, "It's all right." Then he headed for a stream that flowed through the forest. He plunged in and waded upstream a short distance. When he came out on the other bank, he was in the depths of the forest. Within minutes, the hounds, tracing their master's steps, came to the bank. They went no farther. The English soldiers urged them on, but the trail was broken. The stream had carried the scent away. A short time later, the crown of Scotland rested on the head of Robert Bruce.
The memory of our sins, prodded on by Satan, can be like those baying dogs but a stream flows, red with the blood of God's own Son. By grace through faith we are safe. No sin-hound can touch us. The trail is broken by the precious blood of Christ. "The purpose of the cross," someone observed, "is to repair the irreparable."
40. Double Message Noted
Illustration
Editor James S. Hewett
A man sat down to supper with his family and said grace, thanking God for the food, for the hands which prepared it, and for the source of all life. But during the meal he complained about the freshness of the bread, the bitterness of the coffee, and the sharpness of the cheese. His young daughter questioned him, "Dad, do you think God heard the grace today?"
He answered confidently, "Of course."
Then she asked, "And do you think God heard what you said about the coffee, the cheese, and the bread?" Not so confidently, he answered, "Why, yes, I believe so."
The little girl concluded, "Then which do you think God believed, Dad?"
The man was suddenly aware that his mealtime prayer had become a rote, thoughtless habit rather than an attentive and honest conversation with God. By not concentrating on that important conversation, he had left the door open to let hypocrisy sneak in.
41. We Can't Contain God In Our Cups!
Illustration
Zan W. Holmes
One morning a little girl sat at a kitchen table to eat breakfast with her mother and father. As she listened to the prayer her father prayed before the meal, she was especially intrigued that he thanked God for God's presence everywhere.
After the father finished his prayer the little girl asked him, "Father, is it really true that God is everywhere?"
"Yes," said her father.
"Is God in this house?" she asked.
"Yes," her father said.
"Is God in this kitchen?"
"Yes," her father said.
"Is God on this table?" she asked.
"Yes," her father said.
The little girl hesitated and then asked, "Is God in this cup?"
Her father said, "Yes."
Upon hearing this the little girl quickly covered the cup with her hand and exclaimed, "I've got Him!"
In Job's attempt to make some sense out of his suffering, he tried desperately to figure God out by confining God to his own narrow conception of God. In other words, Job was trying to get God to respond within the limited confines of Job's own theological cup. In fact, Job was so certain of his theology that he believed he would prevail if his case were presented before God. To be sure, this is why he wanted to find God. He said, "Would he contend with me in the greatness of his power? No; but he would give heed to me. There an upright person could reason with him, and I should be acquitted forever by my judge" (Job 23:6-7).
Finally in chapter 38 God appears before Job as a voice out of the whirlwind: Who is this that darkens counsel by words without knowledge? Gird up your loins like a man, I will question you, and you shall declare to me. Where were you when I laid the foundation of the earth? Tell me, if you have understanding. Who determined its measurements -- surely you know! Or who stretched the line upon it? On what were its bases sunk, or who laid its cornerstone when the morning stars sang together and all the heavenly beings shouted for joy? -- Job 38:2-7
As soon as God speaks, Job realizes that he can never have the luxury of saying: "I've got God!" Indeed Job now knows that God has exceeded Job's expectations and refuses to be contained and fit neatly into any theological box that Job has constructed. So God answers Job, but not according to Job's definition of the problem of suffering. Instead God transposes the issue to another level which emphasizes God's power and divine knowledge in contrast to the human weakness and ignorance of Job.[1] In response, Job now realizes how foolish he has been to propose that he understood everything that happens. In fact, Job answers God and says, "See, I am of small account; what shall I answer you? I lay my hand on my mouth. I have spoken once, and I will not answer; twice, but will proceed no further" (Job 40:4-5).
No longer does Job seek to arrange a debate where he can instruct God. He finally realizes that it is he and not God who is unaware of life's complete picture. When we too are tempted to believe that God is bound by our theologies, rituals, denominations, and traditions, like Job, we are called to remember that God is boundless and cannot be contained in any of our cups. We cannot put God in the cup of any ritual and say, "I've got God covered." We cannot put God in the cup of any theology and say, "I've got God covered." We cannot put God in the cup of any church tradition and say, "I've got God covered." We cannot put God in any ethnic or gender cup and say, "I've got God covered."
Job learned that God stands above all human systems and wisdom. The purpose behind it all is not to answer directly the problem of suffering, but to give Job a vision of God's glory and presence with Job in the midst of Job's suffering. Thus Job discovers that he can trust God's purposes even though he cannot clearly understand them. Indeed, he comes to see that his new relationship with God will sustain him in the midst of his suffering.
Our African American forefathers and foremothers in the midst of the suffering of slavery could identify with Job's predicament. Even in the face of sorrow and suffering in the absurdity of slavery they were able to sing praises to God through the spirituals. Even though their relationship with God did not bring an immediate end to their oppressive condition, they were sustained by the faith that the cup of slavery could not contain the God of their hope and liberation. By the grace of God, it was a faith that enabled them to sing: Nobody knows the trouble I see, Nobody knows but Jesus. Nobody knows the trouble I see, Glory, Hallelujah.
1. Beverly B. Gaventa, editor, Texts for Preaching, (Louisville: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1993), p. 551. "
42. Lent: Giving Up
Illustration
Billy D. Strayhorn
Self Denial is about making a sacrifice that makes a difference, focusing on the Cross and reminding ourselves what Christ gave up for us. Rev. Craig Gates of Jackson Mississippi has a great list of suggestions. He says we should:
GIVE UP grumbling! Instead, "In everything give thanks." Constructive criticism is OK, but "moaning, groaning, and complaining" are not Christian disciplines.
GIVE UP 10 to 15 minutes in bed! Instead, use that time in prayer, Bible study and personal devotion. A few minutes in prayer WILL keep you focused.
GIVE UP looking at other people's worst attributes. Instead concentrate on their best points. We all have faults. It is a lot easier to have people overlook our shortcomings when we overlook theirs first.
GIVE UP speaking unkindly. Instead, let your speech be generous and understanding. It costs so little to say something kind and uplifting or to offer a smile. Why not check that sharp tongue at the door?
GIVE UP your hatred of anyone or anything! Instead, learn the discipline of love. "Love covers a multitude of sins."
GIVE UP your worries and anxieties! They're too heavy for you to carry anyway. Instead, trust God with them. Anxiety is spending emotional energy on something we can do nothing about: like tomorrow! Live today and let God's grace be sufficient.
GIVE UP TV one evening a week! Instead, visit someone who's lonely or sick. There are those who are isolated by illness or age. Why isolate yourself in front of the "tube?" Give someone a precious gift: your time!
GIVE UP buying anything but essentials for yourself! Instead, give the money to God. The money you would spend on the luxuries could help someone meet basic needs. We're called to be stewards of God's riches, not consumers.
GIVE UP judging others by appearances and by the standard of the world! Instead, learn to give up yourself to God. There is only one who has the right to judge, Jesus Christ.
43. No Such thing As Accidents
Illustration
Michael P. Green
When a cowboy applied for health insurance, the agent routinely asked if he had had any accidents during the previous year. The cowboy replied, “No. But I was bitten by a rattlesnake, and a horse kicked me in the ribs. That laid me up for a while.” The agent said, “Weren’t those accidents?” “No,” replied the cowboy, “They did it on purpose.”
The cowboy realized that there are no such things as “accidents.” How much more so should the Christian who understands the sovereignty of God have the same attitude.
44. Playing God
Illustration
Billy D. Strayhorn
Mee Spousler of the Mount Hope United Methodist Church, in Aston, PA., tells how she was trying to put her three-year-old son to bed for a nap.
When she was unsuccessful, she put him in her bed and laid down with him to encourage him to rest. She fell asleep, but he didn't. When she woke up, she saw him sitting on a chair at the end of the bed, and asked, "Luke, what are you doing?"
"I'm playing God," he replied.
"Playing God?" she asked.
"Yes," he said. "I'm watching over you while you sleep."
Children understand more than we do sometimes. God IS watching over us. Jesus gave that promise here in talking about the coming of the Holy Spirit. Not only will God watch over us but through the presence and reminder of the Holy Spirit, we will be reminded of what it means to "Love Jesus and keep his commands." And God will help us to create the environment of love, grace, faith and security that we need for our homes today. Our challenge is to listen to the Holy Spirit and to trust Christ.
45. Don't Be Too Cheap with the Seed
Illustration
Jack Exum
A farmer was entertaining some visitors to his farm. His spread included some twenty-five hundred acres. They asked him how he planted the seed. He reached in a bin and pulled out an ear of corn. Then he proceeded to pop out the kernels one by one as he walked along, demonstrating the planting process. The farmer then said, "Do you believe that?"
No, sir! was the reply.
Why not? the farmer asked.
"Well for one thing," one of the visitorssaid,"there's that big machine sitting over there."
"You're right," said the farmer. He then took them to thedistributor that was some thirty feet wide. "We take that double tandem truck, fill it with certified seed, back it up to the distributor, open the slots, and pour in the seed." He went on to say, "If you're ever going to be cheap, don't be cheap with the seed."
One bushel of seed invested yields thirty bushels of grain harvested in a good year. Thirty to one—not a bad return, if you are ready to believe and willing to invest.
God says, "Believe Me, trust Me, try My plan, prove My ways, and see the kind of harvest I will give." So Paul guarantees this principle of truth in the Scripture with the promise, "And God is able to make all grace abound to you, so that having all sufficiency in all things at all times, you may abound in every good work."
All grace, all ways, all sufficiency, all things! There are four promises in one breath. Knowing it is one thing, believing it is quite another.
46. The Law and the Gospel
Illustration
David Ernst
The primary purpose of the Law is, like a mirror, to teach man the true knowledge of his sin. We see this in the example of the publican. The publicans were tax-collectors for the Roman imperialists. They were Jews, but were not respected by their people. They were considered traitors and thieves, with some justification.
So the publican did not approach God with pride, demanding what was owed him. On the contrary, he approached the Lord with maximum humility and true repentance. Repentance is essential to receive the forgiveness of sins in Christ. That is why the Law should be preached to unrepentant sinners, but the Gospel to those who are troubled by their sins and terrified of damnation.
The Law demands, threatens and condemns; the Gospel promises, gives and confirms our forgiveness and salvation. God offers forgiveness of sins only in the Good News that we are saved because Christ fulfilled the Law, suffered, died and rose from the dead for us. So let us draw near to God in humility and repentance, of course, but also in the hope and faith that we are justified through faith, not by works, and that in Christ we are children of God.
47. Our Help Comes from Above
Illustration
Ozzie Smith
Looking out at my backyard during the fall, I noticed the leaves falling while the tree branches remained stretching heavenward not only did they remain that way after the leaves were gone, but when the snows came and the often brutal winds of Chicago seemed to bend them into submission. But in the spring the trees seemed to speak to me saying, "Notice that we kept our branches lifted towards where our help comes from." To me it seemed that they praised God with or without leaves, as if they knew that keeping their branches up was a means of patient waiting faith, and it was in the spring when the buds appeared on their branches that those trees seemed to say to me, "We told you. We told you that our help comes from above."
So not only does this text tell us that God provides through Jesus not what we want but what we need and that God's promise can sustain us through all times, but, finally, the text tells us God's presence through Jesus allows us room to grow in grace.
48. Pastoral Prayer
Illustration
Brett Blair
D-Day for WWII was June 6, 1944 — the day on which the Battle of Normandy began — commencing the Western Allied effort to liberate mainland Europe from Nazi occupation during World War II. President Roosevelt composed a prayer and delivered it on the radio that evening. What follows is the full text of that address:
My Fellow Americans,
Last night, when I spoke with you about the fall of Rome, I knew at that moment that troops of the United States and our Allies were crossing the Channel in another and greater operation. It has come to pass with success thus far.
And so, in this poignant hour, I ask you to join with me in prayer:
Almighty God: Our sons, pride of our nation, this day have set upon a mighty endeavor, a struggle to preserve our Republic, our religion, and our civilization, and to set free a suffering humanity.
Lead them straight and true; give strength to their arms, stoutness to their hearts, steadfastness in their faith.
They will need Thy blessings. Their road will be long and hard. For the enemy is strong. He may hurl back our forces. Success may not come with rushing speed, but we shall return again and again; and we know that by Thy grace, and by the righteousness of our cause, our sons will triumph.
They will be sore tried, by night and by day, without rest until the victory is won. The darkness will be rent by noise and flame. Men's souls will be shaken with the violences of war.
For these men are lately drawn from the ways of peace. They fight not for the lust of conquest. They fight to end conquest. They fight to liberate. They fight to let justice arise, and tolerance and goodwill among all Thy people. They yearn but for the end of battle, for their return to the haven of home.
Some will never return. Embrace these, Father, and receive them, Thy heroic servants, into Thy kingdom.
And for us at home fathers, mothers, children, wives, sisters, and brothers of brave men overseas, whose thoughts and prayers are ever with them help us, Almighty God, to rededicate ourselves in renewed faith in Thee in this hour of great sacrifice.
Many people have urged that I call the nation into a single day of special prayer. But because the road is long and the desire is great, I ask that our people devote themselves in a continuance of prayer. As we rise to each new day, and again when each day is spent, let words of prayer be on our lips, invoking Thy help to our efforts.
Give us strength, too strength in our daily tasks, to redouble the contributions we make in the physical and the material support of our armed forces.
And let our hearts be stout, to wait out the long travail, to bear sorrows that may come, to impart our courage unto our sons wheresoever they may be.
And, O Lord, give us faith. Give us faith in Thee; faith in our sons; faith in each other; faith in our united crusade. Let not the keeness of our spirit ever be dulled. Let not the impacts of temporary events, of temporal matters of but fleeting moment let not these deter us in our unconquerable purpose.
With Thy blessing, we shall prevail over the unholy forces of our enemy. Help us to conquer the apostles of greed and racial arrogances. Lead us to the saving of our country, and with our sister nations into a world unity that will spell a sure peace a peace invulnerable to the schemings of unworthy men. And a peace that will let all of men live in freedom, reaping the just rewards of their honest toil.
Thy will be done, Almighty God.
Amen.
Note: We offer this as a possible pastoral prayer during times of war or conflict.We understand that current wars and WWII have many dissimilarities but there are at the same time similarities. Also we understand there are many differences of opinion regardingwar and conflict. So we will notattempted to contemporize or adapt the above prayer leaving that up toeach pastor. Or, you may simply wish to incorporate part or all into your sermon as an historical illustration.
49. Taking Grace Seriously
Illustration
John R. Steward
There was a king who held court every day. He would sit on his throne wearing his robe and crown as the people of his country would come to him stating their needs and requests. Each day, in addition to all the people who would come to the throne, there was also a holy man dressed in a beggar's robe who would come to the king. The holy man would hand the king a piece of fruit which the king would receive and then hand over to one of his assistants. Then the holy man would leave without ever saying a word to the king. This went on for many months and even years. Then one day something happened that no one expected. No one knew that a monkey had gotten loose in the palace. When the holy man presented his gift of fruit to the king, the monkey jumped up on the stage and grabbed the fruit out of the hand of the king. Then the monkey took a bite out of the fruit and all were amazed at what they saw, because precious jewels fell out of the fruit. The king quickly turned and asked his assistant what he had been doing with the fruit. The assistant said that they had been throwing the fruit through the window of a locked room. When they opened the door of that room they found among the rotten and decaying fruit a fortune in jewels.
We fail to take the grace of God seriously. Perhaps because it is a free gift that comes to us in the form of a cross. It does not seem very valuable. Let us pray that God will give us a new understanding of his grace and mercy in Jesus Christ.
Adapted from William A. Miller, Make Friends with Your Shadow (Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing House), p. 128. Used by permission.
50. What Is Unique About Christianity?
Illustration
Brett Blair
The story of Jesus sitting and debating the Law with rabbis reminds me of another debate that took place in a comparative religions conference, the wise and the scholarly were in a spirited debate about what is unique about Christianity. Someone suggested what set Christianity apart from other religions was the concept of incarnation, the idea that God became incarnate in human form. But someone quickly said, "Well, actually, other faiths believe that God appears in human form." Another suggestion was offered: what about resurrection? The belief that death is not the final word. That the tomb was found empty. Someone slowly shook his head. Other religions have accounts of people returning from the dead.
Then, as the story is told, C.S. Lewis walked into the room, tweed jacket, pipe, armful of papers, a little early for his presentation. He sat down and took in the conversation, which had by now evolved into a fierce debate. Finally during a lull, he spoke saying, "what's all this rumpus about?" Everyone turned in his direction. Trying to explain themselves they said, "We're debating what's unique about Christianity." "Oh, that's easy," answered Lewis, "it is grace."
The room fell silent.
Lewis continued that Christianity uniquely claims God's love comes free of charge, no strings attached. No other religion makes that claim. After a moment someone commented that Lewis had a point, Buddhists, for example, follow an eight-fold path to enlightenment. It's not a free ride.
Hindu's believe in karma, that your actions continually affect the way the world will treat you; that there is nothing that comes to you not set in motion by your actions. Someone else observed the Jewish code of the law implies God has requirements, and Islam's code of love does the same.
At the end of the discussion everyone concluded Lewis had a point. Only Christianity dares to proclaim God's love is unconditional. An unconditional love that we call grace.
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